tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-22979202943206678412024-03-18T20:10:41.672-07:00Material ReligionsExploring the material basis of religious traditionsUrmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.comBlogger57125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-23328298994241052422019-07-27T21:50:00.003-07:002019-09-05T20:09:49.877-07:00We Have Moved to "The Jugaad Project"!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">After nearly five years of service to open-access scholarship (2014-19), we have moved to a new and exciting phase with the <a href="https://www.thejugaadproject.pub/" target="_blank">publication of "The Jugaad Project"</a>. </span></span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">For further information on how to submit to <b>The Jugaad Project</b> please contact our <a href="https://www.thejugaadproject.pub/team" target="_blank">editorial team</a>. </span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Follow us on <a href="https://www.instagram.com/jugaadproject/" target="_blank">Instagram.</a></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;"><b>Co-Founder and Managing Editor 2014-present</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;"><b>Contributing Editors 2019-20</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">Alexandra (Sasha) Antohin</span></div>
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-33570243817376581132018-10-12T08:48:00.003-07:002018-10-12T08:57:05.805-07:00Book Review: Bielo, James. Ark Encounter: The Making of a Creationist Theme Park. <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2477" style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2479" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2481"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2483" style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/lillia-mcenaney1.html" target="_blank">Lillia McEnaney</a>
reviews James Bielo's most recent book, an ethnography of a creationist theme park in Kentucky.</span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2477" style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2479" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2481"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2483" style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">MLA citation format: </span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2477" style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2479" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2481"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2483" style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">McEnaney, Lillia</span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2477" style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2479" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2481"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2483" style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Book Review: Bielo, James. Ark Encounter: The Making of a Creationist Theme Park. </span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2477" style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2479" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2481"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2483" style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">New York: New York University Press, 2018. </span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2477" style="color: #444444;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2479" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2481"><span class="yiv7923068732" id="yiv7923068732yui_3_16_0_1_1439081808917_2483" style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions. </i>12 October 2018. Web. [date of access]</span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2018/Mcenaney/images/book_cover.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="300" data-original-width="200" src="https://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2018/Mcenaney/images/book_cover.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">James Bielo’s most recent book, <i>Ark Encounter: The Making of a Creationist Theme Park</i> (New York University Press, 2018) is an in-depth and critical ethnography of a creationist theme park in Kentucky. Written in an accessible yet rigorous tone, Bielo examines the planning, execution, and ramifications of a creationist theme park’s construction within the larger trend within of biblical tourism, or ‘materializing the Bible.’ Bielo fundamentally argues that Biblical attractions and entertainment venues, such as <i>Ark Encounter</i>, provide a key framework for understanding the production of Fundamentalism, and actively work to legitimize creationist views. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The ethnography begins with a historiography of the ways in which the Genesis story has been interpreted, appropriated, and rendered both in popular culture and academia. Bielo bases <i>Ark Encounter</i> off the idea that because the narrative surrounding Noah’s Ark is prominent both within and outside of Christianity, it is vital for the Creationist movement’s overarching argument(s). Interestingly, Bielo makes little distinction between Fundamentalism and fundamentalism here, but defines a particular Protestant Fundamentalism as the belief in four defining elements: 1) The Bible is the “Word of God,” 2) Genesis should be read literally, 3) a universal flood was a historical event, and 4) Darwinian evolution is an inaccurate “attack” on The Bible. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">He continues with a history of the Fundamentalist fight for cultural legitimacy and authority within the public sphere. It is within this context that Bielo introduces <i>Ark Encounter</i> as a “form of fundamentalist Christian public culture” that contributes to the “global phenomenon of materializing the Bible” (Bielo 2018:4). This section of the text is made explicitly accessible to a variety of audiences through an introduction and history of Protestant fundamentalism in the United States. Bielo directly addresses the reader – both non-creationist and creationist – urging them to understand the opposing point of view. Even in these early sections, Bielo is also impressively transparent in his ethnographic methods and thought processes. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Arguably, the most useful theoretical contribution of <i>Ark Encounter</i> is the explicit contextualization of the Genesis story within a paradigm of entertainment, in which entertainment is a tool of materialization, conversion, and belief. To begin the text, Bielo asks how <i>Ark Encounter</i> fits into larger trends of ‘materializing of the Bible,’ and what <i>Ark Encounter</i>’s existence says about contemporary Fundamentalism. After asking these questions, Bielo introduces us to his organizational concepts: devotional consumption, entertainment as play, and religious publicity, all of which he lays out in a clear and concise way. Bielo asks: “how does Ark Encounter seek to mobilize and solidify the creationist public, convert the noncreationists public, and claim legitimacy and authority for creationism through its work of religious publicity?” (Bielo 2018:29). </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><i>Ark Encounter</i>’s following chapter conducts a survey of global case studies of materializing the Bible. Produced alongside Bielo’s web-based digital scholarship project, <i>Materializing the Bible</i>, this section provides key examples of tangible Biblical manifestations including gardens, creation museums, history museums, and re-creations. Where his digital archive often lacks depth and analysis, this chapter fills in the gaps. He explores the devotional and pedagogical nature of various case studies, and fits them into the larger themes that were introduced in the previous chapter. Bielo concludes that the phenomenon of materializing the Bible – and the construction of affect – is a direct response to the Christian longing for authenticity, an argument I found more convincing as the text continued. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The following chapter is framed as an ‘ethnography of cultural production,’ where Bielo argues that analyzing the thought processes and labor of the <i>Ark Encounter</i> team provides important context for the project as a whole. He found that the labor of creating the park was directly related to the team’s religious commitment to a creationist agenda. This commitment was strengthened by the team’s collaborative processes. They developed a shared purpose: to publicize Fundamentalism. Bielo also found that the physical layout, sounds, and decoration of the team’s workspace worked towards this same goal, and this chapter also provided a useful discussion of discourse analysis. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Chapter 4 explicitly tackles the process of conversion. It has been made clear throughout the text that conversion – through both religious publicity and materializing the Bible – is the key goal for the project team. In this, Bielo found that the team’s key strategy for conversion was to facilitate visitors’ embodied movements while in the Ark – “Noah’s story cannot merely be told; it must be felt.” (Bielo 2018:89). According to Bielo, when you enter the park, a feeling of multisensory immersion is immediate. The project team deliberately engaged in what Bielo calls “world-building,” an extension of immersion that I found particularly engaging and thought-provoking. A second strategy for conversation is ensuring that the Noah story appears plausible within the context of ‘religious play.’ Combined, the team hypothesized that this plausibility-immersion play would serve their goal of immersion, and succeed in converting their visitors. The acknowledgement and analysis of these tactics is a key contribution of the text, but it may have been helpful for Bielo to spend more time with these ideas. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bielo’s next section, Chapter 5, situates <i>Ark Encounter</i> within the paradigm of ‘history-making,’ in which the past is a contested sociocultural process infused with power. This discussion – and the construction of power in particular – is fundamental to understanding the Ark, and it would helpful to include this framework earlier in the text. Here, the processes of history-making are largely set in the context of the Creation Museum’s <i>Dragon Legends </i>exhibition, which fundamentally questions the assumption that humans did not live alongside dinosaurs. The introduction of this new case study provides a key shift away from the theoretical, and situates the book within a new museum anthropological framework. Though useful, its placement in the text seems haphazard. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bielo then returns to the work of history, and the “struggle for symbolic power” (Bielo 2018:135). In this struggle for power, Bielo notes that both the Creation Museum and <i>Ark Encounter</i> serve as safe havens for creationists – a place where they do not have to confront the scientific orthodoxy. This small note added the important aspect of the affective, lived experiences of Fundamentalism. His following discussion of Fundamentalist influences in education (education through entertainment – “edutaining”) acts in a similar way – it brings the experience of creationism to life, and reminds us why these discussions matter. It is here that Bielo drives the point of entrainment home – “when it comes to history-making, is creationism more fun than evolution?” (Bielo 2018:138). </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bielo’s final chapter, titled “A Walking Poetics of Faith,” finally brings us to the realized product – <i>Ark Encounter</i>’s physical space. Bielo uses David Morgan’s (2012) approach to “the gaze,” in which <i>Ark Encounter</i> fosters an embodied “way of seeing” that furthers the team’s goals (Bielo 2018:142). This gaze results in what Susan Harding (2000) calls a ‘poetics of faith,’ where, according to Bielo, religious commitment and authority are intensified. As previously noted, immersion is key to religious authority and conversion, and Bielo continues this here by discussing the two ways in which the <i>Ark Encounter</i> team used immersive experiences to persuade their visitors: the construction of a “creationist past and a creationist present” (Bielo 2018:143). </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In this chapter, Bielo continues the comparison with the Creation Museum, which provides a useful frame of analysis to think through the realized park. Though close analysis of exhibition context, Bielo concludes that <i>Ark Encounter</i> works as both a form of pedagogy and religious publicity, with the overarching goals of converting non-Fundamentalists to Fundamentalism, while working to reify Fundamentalist beliefs. He importantly focuses on the interactive and sensory – particularly auditory, haptic visuality, and architectural – strategies, while also noting the specific and intention lack of written signage or text. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bielo closes <i>Ark Encounter</i> by again contextualizing this work into the larger projects of the anthropology of religion. Bielo expresses a wish that his book will make three primary contributions. First, “Ark Encounter demonstrates how fundamentalist public culture can emerge from a thorough entanglement between religion and entertainment” (Bielo 2018:175). Secondly, Ark Encounter fits into the larger project of “materializing the Bible” (Bielo 2018:175), and finally, it “provides an opportunity to expand our understanding of creationism and fundamentalist public culture.” (Bielo 2018:175). After reiterating these points, Bielo’s conclusion makes a sharp turn and brings in a discussion of the relationship of ‘theme parks’ to Fundamentalism. Though interesting, this conversation deserves to be moved to another chapter of the book and explicated with more nuance rather than squeezed into the conclusion. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The most tangibly useful part of this book, for this reader, is Bielo’s appendix. He painstakingly reviews his relationship to the project team, his levels of ethnographic access, and his fieldwork experiences. Of particular interest was his reflections on his field notebook, and his frank relaying of the difficult turns his research process took. Bielo’s response and adaptation to disruptions in his research processes provides valuable lessons for any ethnographer, and particularly for young scholars. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Overall, <i>Ark Encounter</i> is a useful contribution to the literature in anthropology, religious studies, and material religion, and situates itself within a deep literature in Fundamentalist studies. Bielo’s clear and concise writing style and structure, combined with his thoughtful analysis and discussion, produced a strong text that would be useful for scholars studying the anthropology of religion and is particularly useful for students because of his radical transparency in his research processes. </span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">References: </span></span></span></b><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Morgan, David. <i>The Embodied Eye: Religious Visual Culture and the Social Life of Feeling.
</i>Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Harding, Susan. <i>The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics. </i>Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000. </span></span></span><br />
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-79611527367358122482017-12-03T19:42:00.000-08:002017-12-03T19:42:26.298-08:00Dressing Rooms: Spaces of Magical Reality <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/alyssa-velazquez.html" target="_blank">Alyssa Velazquez</a> writes about dressing rooms as transitional spaces, questioning how, and to whom, these secret and privileged spaces generate imagined realities.</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">MLA citation format:</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Velazquez, Alyssa,</span> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"Dressing Rooms: Spaces of Magical Reality"</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">b</span>log <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">p</span>ost<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">.</span> <i>Material Religions</i><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><i>.</i> 4 December 2017. Web. [date of access]</span> </span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">You are now going “behind the scenes.” As you cross over the threshold you may expect to experience the intimate and exclusive, to learn the unknown, or view the insides of a specialized world.
Museums, historic homes, aquariums and zoos, sports’ stadiums, and performing arts spaces alike offer this level of familiarity to their venues in various formats: guided tours and over-night sleepovers, or through sponsorship pamphlets and advertising campaigns. <i>Dance Retailer News</i>, a magazine for the selling and marketing of dance retail, published in 2008 a one-page tutorial on how to glam up a display case of merchandise with a dressing room “motif.” The picture that accompanied this short advertisement displayed a three-tiered makeup organizer, open for the viewer to glimpse an assortment of brushes and nail polish, a kaleidoscope of eyeshadows, and its crowning jewel: a tiara. To the right of the case was a T-shaped earring stand and a double-bar bracelet holder sitting atop a circular mirror. In front of, and amongst, these primary fixtures were perfume bottles, a powder container, and a small wooden artist’s model. Behind this display of makeup and accessories floated a—from their description—gold Rococo mirror, accented by a pair of point shoes hanging from its top right corner. All these elements, if positioned just so, were intended to create “the perfect little girl’s fantasy dressing table.” [i] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This materialized dressing room, rather than revealing the backstage to the viewer, is a staged viewpoint. The malleability of the dressing room as a space or décor is partly due to that fact that the theater’s backstage space remains one of the “least documented, least analyzed, least theorized areas of theater space.” [ii] For Dance Retailer it can be whatever they want it to be. In this case, by setting the store up in this fashion: a dancer’s private vanity, the retailer is promoting merchandise within the mystical transitional space of a dressing room. Validity is given to makeup brushes and frames through the placement of these items in a space devoid of walls and its inhabitant. Without its occupant, the dressing table, costume pieces, makeup, and production footwear are the actor’s stand-ins—not only do they represent the transformation, but also, the person who was or will be transformed. Stripped of any defining architectural features and specific production elements, the magic or the fantasy of the dressing room is encapsulated in the objects that are brought into the space to prepare and to be used on the stage, rather than what already exists. In 2008, the New York Times ran an article on Broadway dressing rooms and some of their a-list occupants. Harvey Fierstien, most known for his roles in Hairspray and Fiddler on the Roof, was quoted as saying, “architecturally, most dressing rooms are pretty horrifying—the bare walls painted seven thousand times. There is magic in the theater, but it’s not in the dressing room.” [iii] </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/11/velazquez/images/Fig1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/11/velazquez/images/Fig1.jpg" data-original-height="354" data-original-width="438" height="322" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 1: Backstage Dressing Room from the Billy Rose Theater Division,<br />
The New York Public Library. <a href="http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/9b4e8a29-9b73-7d22-e040-e00a18066cf8" target="_blank">New York Public Library Digital Collections.</a> Accessed October 2, 2017.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">That statement was certainly considered true in England throughout the nineteenth-century. On November 30rd 1889 the British Medical Journal ran a short piece on the dressing-rooms of provincial theaters. The article linked the recent deaths of two touring actors from enteric fever— a bacterial disease today known as typhoid—to the “insanitary condition of the rooms in which they “change” or “make-up” before appearing on stage.” [iv] Within the write-up these spaces of change were described as being near water-closets or waste-pipes in unventilated corners that lacked the necessary fresh air circulation—all of which was believed to be the cause of actors’ ill health. The French were equally intrigued with the backstage spaces of its performance venues, exemplified to them in the writings of Emile Zola, who, vividly depicted the sexual atmosphere of chorus girl water-closets and the immodest entertaining of male audience members by leading ladies in their dim and close quarter dressing rooms. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 2: Don Nicol and Ballet, Theater Royal, Sydney (January 30th 1946). From the collection of the <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/statelibraryofnsw/9906066743/in/photolist-g6nbwc-aTHniK-ouCcqo-5Ujpoa-ouNGpo-owfWbW-otHNZ5-8nYhSx-odkFVo-osNHQ5-tCU7qp-otDDTe-odAArX-orBUwd-odMnmu-ouVvUd-7rTtwj-7rPxkr-odoKjw-icYT9q-ovkeTN-osoTvL-owa3x2-72AUyk-8nYiPi-oyd59T-osNpMw-osNDwq-ocUwRm-7rTtvN-owpXtf-7rPAtV-osMGTC-ovaMmA-ouNBLW-ocWpPb-ou8NSa-odmjRh-ouxYSc-oup832-ocVtqT-qtND3L-ouyqPH-ouCPq9-owACbB-owjTbF-oeVRE8-7rPxmc-ouNBaL-xf75Ku" target="_blank">State Library of South Wales</a>. Accessed October 2, 2017.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Today, from this physically and often metaphorically unclean dark and hidden space, the dressing room is emerging as the performer’s private world. The four-cornered dressing spaces of leading men and women throughout the twenty-first century (specifically with the increase of music and cinema stars debuting on Broadway) are becoming venues for interior designers to construct a “home away from home” for their client, or a center of inspiration that speaks to the actor’s character. As a result, these secret and privileged spaces built to transform the performer into someone other than themselves, are being constructed with the fictional personae in mind, as much as, the space’s physical inhabitant. These interior design makeovers are then made the feature story of newspapers and trendy publications, making their transformation public knowledge. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/11/velazquez/images/Fig3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/11/velazquez/images/Fig3.jpg" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="436" height="400" width="290" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 3: British actor Alec Guinness in <i>Under the Sycamore Tree</i>, London, 1952.<br />
<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jumborois/4230328683/in/photolist-7rPxkr-odoKjw-icYT9q-ovkeTN-osoTvL-owa3x2-72AUyk-8nYiPi-oyd59T-osNpMw-osNDwq-ocUwRm-7rTtvN-owpXtf-7rPAtV-osMGTC-ovaMmA-ouNBLW-ocWpPb-ou8NSa-odmjRh-ouxYSc-oup832-ocVtqT-qtND3L-ouyqPH-ouCPq9-owACbB-owjTbF-oeVRE8-7rPxmc-ouNBaL-xf75Ku-ouqroC-ouVMFm-w9LBNk-ouNCcA-owTtwi-oePzn2-ovvA5h-ouJBFA-oePKzs-ouQH2e-ouQdwt-odhRPD-ovdUiP-owupbF-ouy11p-oupDcY-731aMs" target="_blank">Accessed October 2, 2017.</a> </td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The dressing room, as a transitional space, is a bridge between reality and the world on-stage. This physical hybrid of architecture and imagination has, over the years, been featured in fiction, poetry, news reports, interior design magazines, and even retail catalogues, making a theater’s backstage a fixture in the human imagination. But what are they? What do these spaces do? What do they generate? Why, even in 2008, did Mr. Fierstien direct the outsider’s gaze to the stage as the source of a production’s magic, rather than, the “horrifying” space in which he went day-after-day to transition from a man to a woman for his role of Tracey Turnblad’s buxom mother in the musical <i>Hairspray</i>? From whom or what do these eccentric spaces derive their draw and power? [v] In their marketability, as in Dance Retailer News? In their malleability, as in the professional remodeling of Josh Groban’s dressing room for his character in <i>The Great Comet</i>? Perhaps it’s a lingering vestige of its salacious literary past. Or is it derived from the continued exclusion from the cannon of research in theater history? It is the room? Is it the bric-a-brac that fills the room? Or is it all a product of our imagination? </span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Endnotes: </span></span></span></b><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[i] Adriana Lee, “A Vanity Fair,” <i>Dance Retailer News</i> 7, no. 2 (February 2008): 50. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[ii] Gay McAuley, <i>Space in Performance: Making Meaning in Theater</i>, (Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2000), 26. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[iii] Penelope Green, “Setting the Stage, Offstage,” <i>The New York Times</i> (March 20th 2008).</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[iv] “The Dressing-Rooms of Theaters,” <i>The British Medical Journal</i> 2, no. 1509 (November 30th 1889): 1236. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[v] The term “eccentric spaces” is derived from Robert Harbison’s book entitled <i>Eccentric Spaces</i>, New York: Knopf, 1977, in which he looks at spaces and interiors that are created based off human imagination. </span></span></span><br />
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-45230518764469909582017-10-11T15:53:00.000-07:002019-07-13T20:52:42.335-07:00Tracing the Many Lives of Religious Structures<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/uthara-suvrathan.html" target="_blank">Uthara Suvrathan</a> emphasizes the importance of alternative traces in exploring the complex life-histories of Buddhist and Hindu religious structures in Banavasi, South India. By paying attention to ephemeral as well as more long-lasting religious material culture she offers a way of studying changing patterns of religious practice and cultural memory formation.</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">MLA citation format:</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Suvrathan, Uthara</span> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"Tracing the Many Lives of Religious Structures"</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">b</span>log <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">p</span>ost<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">.</span> <i>Material Religions</i><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><i>.</i> 11 October 2017. Web. [date of access]</span> </span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Edited by Courtney O'Dell-Chaib. </span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Archaeologists and historians studying religious structures frequently tend to classify temples by the initial dynastic period of their construction, and the literature abounds with phrases like the ‘Chola temple’ or ‘Satavahana <i>stupa</i>’ [i] However, in the academic quest for order in data, we underestimate how frequently monuments are in constant flux. Religious structures in particular cannot be fixed in time, although they might be so in space. By pinning these structures within specific temporal and dynastic periods, we often ignore the fact that religious structures are living entities. We forget that these are complex entities that have complex life histories extending long after that of their initial construction—they were constantly added on to and altered, often spanning the rule of multiple dynasties. By tracing the life-histories of religious structures archaeologists and historians can access an ever-changing pattern of cultural memory formation and religious practice. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">At Banavasi (Karnataka, India) where I worked for several years [ii], my team and I studied several Buddhist <i>stupas</i>, hemispherical structures constructed to enclose Buddhist relics. Site 71 is an extremely overgrown and eroded circular brick mound located about a mile north of the village of Banavasi (Figure 1) [iii]. Based on the form and size of the bricks used in the structure, the <i>stupa</i> was constructed around the second-third centuries CE. Ceramics and terracotta roof tiles found on the structure also date it to an early period, at least prior to the 7th century CE [iv]. It thus falls within a period when Buddhism was widespread in southern India and Banavasi itself was likely an important religious and economic center. The limited historical research on these monuments has so far focused on their form and temporal context and once the structures have been neatly categorized by these criteria their later histories have been largely ignored. </span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/10/suvrathan/images/Fig1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/10/suvrathan/images/Fig1.jpg" data-original-height="540" data-original-width="720" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 1: Site 71, eroded <i>stupa</i>. Photo by author.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">It is likely that the core period of the <i>stupa’s</i> use and worship as a <i>Buddhist </i>structure was limited to an early period and declined starting from the fourth-fifth centuries as Buddhist worship in south India was largely replaced by a resurgent Hindu tradition. In Karnataka, Shaivite Hinduism, which focused on the primacy of the God Shiva, emerged as predominant. As Buddhism gradually became less popular, <i>stupas</i> across the region were abandoned and fell into ruin. And yet, even as Hindu temples increasingly became the focus of social and religious life, fragments of “material memory” remained. At site 71 (and at other <i>stupa</i> locations in and near Banavasi) the mound has a looter’s hole on the top. From colonial travellers accounts from the 17th and 18th centuries, we know that the ‘topes’ were often mined for reliquaries by the rather straightforward, though archaeologically unsound, method of digging a hole in the top into the relic chamber. While the looter’s holes in the Banavasi <i>stupas</i> cannot be dated, it is an interesting remnant of a memory or belief that there might be ‘treasure’ in the centre of these structures. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">There is also clear evidence of the later use of site 71. In fact, at present the structure is considered a Hindu shrine although there is some memory among the present inhabitants of surrounding villages of its early history as a Buddhist structure. The hemisphere has been flattened on top, and brick fragments mined from the structure have been used to construct a makeshift shrine consisting of a platform surrounded on three sides by low, roughly-built walls (Figure 2). The shrine itself contains an extremely eroded figure of the elephant-headed god, Ganesha, as well as a fragmentary <i>sapta-matrika</i> panel that represents seven mother goddesses who are a part of the Hindu pantheon (Figure 3). These items have clearly been appropriated from one or more Hindu temples and date to a period after the 16th century. This fits with evidence of a second episode of roof construction on the <i>stupa</i>, where the terracotta tiles are of forms that can be dated to between the 16th and 19th centuries CE.
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/10/suvrathan/images/Fig2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/10/suvrathan/images/Fig2.jpg" data-original-height="540" data-original-width="720" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 2: Shrine on top of <i>stupa</i>. Photo by author.</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/10/suvrathan/images/Fig3.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/10/suvrathan/images/Fig3.jpg" data-original-height="540" data-original-width="720" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 3:<i> </i>Shrine elements. Photo by author.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Even more recently, within the last couple of years, a set of cement reinforced steps lead up to the shrine. When we talked to people living and worshiping at the shrine there was no recognition that it was originally a site of Buddhist worship, instead the mound itself has been absorbed into a modern mythos that weaves tales of ancient mounds or <i>'guddas' </i>that were the palaces of ancient (and unnamed) kings). At most of the <i>stupas</i> that survive in the area, there is evidence of later use and worship, including the construction not just of shrines but of simple stone alignments of unclear purpose. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sites like these offer an interesting contrast to other <i>stupas</i> that have been completely forgotten and destroyed. For instance, at site 207 we initially noticed a low circular mound, barely more than an undulation on the ground. Since there were no structural fragments (like brick or tiles) visible on the surface it was difficult to identify it as a <i>stupa</i>. On a visit a couple of months later, the farmer who owned that field had decided to level the ground for cultivation and was using a large mechanical backhoe to dig up the mound. With this excavation, the true nature of the structure was revealed and the distinctive bricks and terracotta tiles that emerged clearly identified it as a <i>stupa</i> (Figure 4). </span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/10/suvrathan/images/Fig4.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/10/suvrathan/images/Fig4.jpg" data-original-height="540" data-original-width="720" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 4: Site 207, destroyed <i>stupa</i>. Photo by author.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Yet another example of the complex life histories of religious structures comes from a consideration of folk religious practices that often occur outside the traditional ritual spaces of the temple. Throughout South India, folk beliefs populate the landscape with a variety of divine and semi-divine beings, as well as spirits <i>(bhutas)</i> and other inimical forces. In many cases, these small sacred sites do not have built shrines. Instead, they could consist of rounded stones or earthen pots worshiped as forms of the mother goddess (Chowdamma); or places identified as residences of spirits or natural symbols (termite mounds, snake holes). In other cases, these shrines can include miscellaneous architectural or sculptural fragments appropriated from larger structures. These ephemeral forms of construction are a crucial part of the wider religious landscape and as important in lived practice as the larger stupas and Hindu temples. Such small village shrines are simply made of easily available materials and require little labor. Due to their very impermanence the materials they are made of require maintenance and they are continuously cleaned, added to, worshiped. These small shrines are a more organic feature of the village landscape- a rounded stone tucked away under a banyan tree, appropriating the hole of the village cobra, or a broken sculpture under a palm leaf shed. I cannot imagine that such places would leave easily identifiable traces for the archaeologist. And yet, they must have been a part of village life for generations. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">However, the boundaries between these local traditions and more institutionalized Hinduism, where worship was sited within stone temples and mediated through priests, are extremely fluid. Traditionally, if flaws or cracks developed in the central <i>lingam</i> (typically a phallus-shaped symbol of the Hindu god Shiva, worshiped as a generative force) within a temple it was no longer considered worthy of worship. And yet, as sacred items they had to be disposed of carefully and were, by being submerged in the nearby river. Periodically throughout the year these items re-emerged during the dry season when the water level falls drastically. Over some time, these discarded items become the focus of smaller folk shrines, with small walls enclosing them (Figure 5). In many cases worship at these shrines are the province of local families and do not require the intercession of the priest who is attached to the larger temple. However, as the shrine becomes more permanent, the priest re-enters the picture and begins to make more formal ritual offerings on behalf of the people. </span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/10/suvrathan/images/Fig5.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/10/suvrathan/images/Fig5.jpg" data-original-height="540" data-original-width="720" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 5: <i>Linga </i>on dried river bed. Photo by author.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A more careful exploration of the life histories of small and large structures thus adds greatly to our understanding of the complexity of cultural memory in the communities we study. By foregoing some of our desire to classify the material indicators of history we can begin to explore something of the messiness of human action, past and present! </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>Acknowledgements</b> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This blog post derives from research that will be published in an article that is under review: ‘The Multivalence of Landscapes: Archaeology and heritage’. In Himanshu Prabha Ray (ed.), <i>Preserving Plurality: Heritage in South and Southeast Asia. </i>Routledge. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>Endnotes</b> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[i] ‘Chola’ and ‘Satavahana’ refer to pre-modern dynasties known to have ruled in south Asia. The Satavahanas controlled the central section of the Indian subcontinent from the 1st c. BCE to the 2nd century CE. The Cholas ruled large areas of southern India between the 9th and 13th centuries CE. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[ii] Uthara Suvrathan, “Spoiled for Choice?: The sacred landscapes of ancient and early medieval Banavasi”, <i>South Asian Studies,</i> Vol. 30.2 (2014); “Regional Centres and Local Elite: Studying peripheral cores in peninsular India”, <i>Indian History</i> (The Annual Journal of the Archive India Institute), Vol. 1 (2014). </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[iii] During my research we recorded and studied over 600 sites, large and small, dating from the third century BCE to the present day. Each site was assigned a unique identification number. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[iv] Evidence from similar structures elsewhere in the subcontinent, as well as inferences drawn from the low quantities of roof-tiles found at 71 indicate that only certain sections of the structure were roofed. </span></span></span><br />
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-90100478430771536162017-08-20T10:41:00.001-07:002017-08-20T21:45:09.660-07:00Material Culture and the Construction of Subjects<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/marie-pierre-julien.html" target="_blank">Marie-Pierre Julien</a> and <a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/celine-rosselin.html" target="_blank">Céline Rosselin</a> explore the issues at stake in the close physical relationship that people have with objects, proposing that this seemingly quotidian and frequently non-verbal process is a means of constructing human beings as subjects. What is at stake in material culture is not only the production of physical environments by actors but the effects of these environments in shaping people as specific kinds of social entities.</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Marie-Pierre Julien and Céline Rosselin </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">“Material Culture and the Construction of Subjects” </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions.</i> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">20 August 2017. Web. [date of access] </span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">(This excerpt was originally published in French as: Julien, Marie-Pierre and Céline Rosselin. 2005. “Culture matérielle et construction des sujets” In Marie-Pierre Julien and Céline Rosselin eds. La culture matérielle. Paris: La Découverte. pp. 65-90.) </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Louis-Marie Morfaux [1980] defines the object as "a solid, visible and tangible material reality". One of the characteristics of objects is therefore the immediate perception of their materiality. The expression "material culture" seems appropriate to us since it insists on the materiality of objects, and does not oppose it to a supposed world of ideas. </span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Objects have shapes, colors, dimensions, material(s). They have a "basic" function (a pen serves to write), to which different authors add secondary functions (social, aesthetic or symbolic). Objects also have meanings and are polysemic. In this way, these elements allow us to form an idea of what an object may be. But what else is lacking in order to make culture, material culture? </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Schlereth (1993) defines material culture as “a process whereby we attempt to see through objects to the cultural meaning to which they relate or which they might mediate”. [1993, p. 240, translation of the authors]. This definition poses a problem with regards to the materiality of objects: this involves a close physical contact (akin to a love-making one might say) since human beings cannot literally pass through objects. The issues at stake are important because this physical relationship that people have to matter participates in the construction of human beings as subjects. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">From Signification to Action on Matter </span></span></span></span></span></span></b><br />
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<u><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The Object-Sign </span></span></span></span></span></span></u><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">There is a consensus that objects mean. Like words, they constitute a language and, in this sense, participate in the construction of a message. Their function is perhaps not to signify, but they mean, that is to say, according to Roland Barthes (1985, p. 251-252], that "they are never pure instruments [...], they are also something else: they convey meaning". </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The basic theoretical postulate of semiology posits the existence of meaning. Thus, an object means, because even if it means nothing, it means "nothing". By "meaning" is meant a process: the object takes on a meaning for an individual when it relates it to his or her own experiences. Thus, the relation between the object and the subject (perception) is established by an infinite chain of interpreters. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The subject is not a passive receiver of the message communicated by the object, because it constructs meaning through an active process of perception. The object cannot therefore mean the same thing for everyone: it is polysemic. Thus Jerusalem artichoke had disappeared from the French fruit and vegetable displays because it reminded two generations of consumers who had lived through the 1939-1945 war of years of deprivation and the monotony of meals. After fifty years of absence, this vegetable has no significant sense, taste or smell for the young. In the 1990s, it reappeared in organic vegetable markets valued for its dietary qualities and in the name of dietary diversity. The meaning of objects is therefore not understood in the object: it is socially constructed because it is the result of social interactions [Semprini, 1995]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/08/julien/images/shopping_sm.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/08/julien/images/shopping_sm.jpg" data-original-height="432" data-original-width="576" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A study of the transformation of family eating practices near Paris, 2013. Photo courtesy of Marie-Pierre Julien.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">However, objects are not just signs, and material culture is not just a system of signs, a book that one would have to "learn to read", according to some researchers [Tilley, 1990; Gerbrands, 1990]. Thus, archaeologists Philippe Bruneau and Pierre-Yves Balut [1989] condemn "semiotism which consists in believing that everything is meaning, to refer everything to language and thus leads to mistakenly assimilate the universe of the sign to that of the tool "[P. 41]. The ethnologist Sydney Mintz [1999, p. 24] echoed: "Concrete physical, cultural objects ... are not the same thing as language," each with specific functions. According to him, "things" produce, while words describe. Warnier [1999a, p. 33] suggests a precise situation to support this reasoning: "If I have an idea, you have one and we exchange them we will each have two ideas. If, on the other hand, I have a pen, and you do the same, and we exchange them, each one, in the end, will have only one pen." </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The main criticisms made of a confusion between words and things concern the absence of taking into account the materiality of the objects, their frequent extraction from an active human context and the forgetting of the non-verbal part of human experience [Debray, 1994; Glassie, 1993; Julien and Warnier, 1999; Miller, 1987; Warnier, 1999a]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><u>The Object-Matter in Action</u> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Material objects are studied in a context. Also, a change of context modifies the very nature of the object. This affirmation is true on the scale of a society or a social group. For instance, a statuette of Fang reliquaries participates in the cult of the ancestors in Gabon, is an object of art to the Dapper Foundation (Paris) and an inalienable ethnographic object at the Musée de l'Homme (Paris). It is also true at the level of micro-sociology or that of the ethnography of action that is concerned with detail [Piette, 1996]: a chair placed on the sidewalk near a doorway or near garbage cans or in a waiting room differs in meaning from the same chair located around a table in an apartment. Above all it involves different actions and different attitudes towards it. Beyond the interrogation it provokes or the evidence of its presence, its position in time and space induces a real change of qualities (properties, for example). </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/08/julien/images/reliquary_sm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/08/julien/images/reliquary_sm.jpg" data-original-height="576" data-original-width="432" height="400" width="300" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">19th c. Fang Reliquary from Cameroon, Ethnologisches Museum in Dahlem. Paula Soler-Moya. CC BY 2.0, Image Credit.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
The object’s context is defined by the physical location and the universe of meaning in which it is integrated, but also by the articulation between objects, spaces, temporalities and human beings who interact with it.
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The attention given to action taken in a specific situation is mainly a fact of the cognitive sciences. Thus, the Revue Raisons pratiques regularly publishes issues devoted to the analysis of the workings of the action of a subject at a given time and place: the kitchen, the company, the laboratory, the room of a police station [Conein et al., 1993] are the spaces in which one can analyze the action taking place, its resources, the objects on which it is based, its temporality, and the people in interaction. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/08/julien/images/cockpit_sm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/08/julien/images/cockpit_sm.jpg" data-original-height="383" data-original-width="576" height="265" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cockpit of an Airbus A380. Roger Schultz. CC BY 2.0, Image Credit.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Edwin Hutchins [1994] shows, through his observations of aircraft cockpits, that cognition is distributed. In cognitive activities, pilots delegate some of their cognition to objects: one thinks of the DME (distance measurement equipment) which indicates the position of the aircraft with respect to a beacon on the ground, by the data entered previously in the computer, or of the autopilot which guides the aircraft by the data on-board and the anti-collision radar signaling the proximity of another aircraft. Subjects and objects are considered by Hutchins to be a functional system. This renewed vision of action and cognition describes a process of objectification (from subjects to objects), in which objects (and other subjects present) are considered resources for action or "cognitive mediators", according to Bernard Blandin [2002, p. 155]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Among the resources of action, Lucy Suchman [1987] integrates representations: they are not a prerequisite for action, but are added to those offered by the environment and with which to improvise. A descent of rapids in canoe can be planned, but it is mainly made possible by the interactions, at the time of the action, between the canoeist with the incorporated skill and the constraints resulting from the environment. According to Benoît Grison (2004), Suchman's work is in line with anthropologist Thomas Gladwin’s work on the Polynesian trukese sailors: navigators do not predict the actions to be taken to reach an atoll, but play, and as and when measure navigation, with the currents and islands encountered, the winds and the color of the sea. The action in context and the planned action cannot, however, be oppositional, but intervene differently according to the modes of navigation. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The cognitivistic conception of a human being who plans before acting, like a computer that programs a body to move, poses the anteriority of representation over action. This approach is shared by many researchers, all social sciences alike. Thus, in the case of sociology and anthropology, objects are referred to something other than themselves, to discourse, to structures of thought, to social stratification: they are reduced to the domain of social representations which then explain the action of human beings. It is not a question here of denying the existence of representations, whether individual or collective, but of questioning their supremacy which is prejudicial to the analysis of material culture. Thus, Jean-Pierre Warnier [1999a] takes again the famous painting of Magritte representing a pipe and bearing the title "This is not a pipe". The painter does not try to deceive his world, for his painting represents a pipe, but is not a pipe: impossible to stuff it, to light it, to smoke, to feel its form, its texture, its warmth in the palm of the hand. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">To observe the materiality of objects also leads to encountering their resistance. But what are they resisting? Human will? If your will wishes to leave the walls of this house to go outside, your body will have to pass through the door, provided that you open it beforehand. This evidence, often disdained, is anchored in a principle of reality: human beings, like objects, are matter.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Body to Body</span></span></span></span></span></span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<u><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Which Body?</span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></u><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
Despite the large number of works published on the "body" issue since the 1990s, both in Anglo-Saxon countries and in France, the body is, like objects, relatively unimportant in its materiality. While the responsibility for this is undoubtedly the denial of the body in Western philosophy, social and cultural anthropology is also marked by a past that makes it timid. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In the middle of the nineteenth century, physical anthropology in France classified and then prioritized races through the strictly anatomical study of the physical characteristics of the human body. A step was taken from scientific intention to ideology, and from raciology to racism. The school of Durkheimian sociology and the emerging social and cultural anthropology opposed this ideology by asserting that there were no biological inequalities between races, but cultural differences between societies. They abandoned research on the body, except for Mauss, to preserve only the metaphor of the social body (Durkheim). </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The years 1980-1990 are marked, in France, by a renewed interest in this object taken in its historical, anthropological, sociological or philosophical dimensions. The historicity of body practices (health and sickness, physical and sports activities, leisure, clothing, body marking), their inclusion in power stakes, their diversity according to social and cultural groups, show that the body is a material that works and is worked, that marks and is marked. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Scarification, tattooing, haircutting, piercing are not the only ones to leave their imprints on the bodies. As early as 1936, Mauss questioned the techniques of the body, that is to say "the ways in which men, society by society, in a traditional way, know how to use their bodies", to understand the great diversity of ways of moving. The point is simple: ways to walk, swim, dig, wear, hold hands open or closed differ according to age, sex and society. To put it another way, age, gender and sociocultural belonging are inscribed in bodies in action. Also, the techniques of the body, far from being natural, even if they respond to physiological needs identical to every human being (to nourish, to urinate, to reproduce), are educated. According to Mauss, the physio-psycho-sociological arrangements that are the techniques of the body and which define "the total man" are all the more easily realized in individuals as they are constructed by and for "social authority". The notion of habitus takes its place as a corporeal memory shared by the members of a society and inscribed in singular bodies. Mauss thus provided the basis for a reflection on the social incorporation that the sociologist Bourdieu appropriated.</span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><u>Social Incorporation</u> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For Bourdieu [1980], agents incorporate schemes of perception, thought and action through the inculcation of social values. This inculcation is anchored in the body and allows us to act without having to think (what we call "practical sense") to the point that actions appear natural to those who realize them. The body in action is the place where objective, external structures (social norms objectified for instance in institutions) and subjective, internal motivations are articulated. The adoption of a sport is therefore explained by the adequacy between the social uses of this sport and the corporeal pattern "depositary of a social vision of the world, a whole philosophy of the person and the body proper" 1979, p. 240]. For instance, the practice of rugby by the bourgeoisie is possible only if "the feeling of high dignity of the person" is safeguarded.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Bernard Lahire [1998] criticizes Bourdieu's posture, which, despite the desire to go beyond the dualism of objectivism/subjectivism, is essentially on the side of social structures, finally leaving little room for the actor (i.e., the one who acts rather than is acted upon). According to the author of L'Homme pluriel, actors (children, adolescents, adults) do not incorporate structures, but "internalize modes of action, interaction, reaction, appreciation, perception, categorization, etc., by gradually entering into social relations of interdependence with other actors or by maintaining, through the mediation of other actors, relations with multiple objects of which they learn the modes of use, the mode(s) of appropriation" (1998, p. 204]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Incorporation is a rare sociological notion that directly affects the body [Berthelot, 1988]. The body is too often a pretext evoked to defend a theoretical choice: the body, suffering, bruised, victim, is mobilized to show or denounce the weight of social structures on individuals without power (agents); The body, in its creative, innovative capacity, as a place of self-realization for the supporters of the autonomy of individuals (actors). The respective postures of Bourdieu and Lahire and the collective work A Body for Self [Bromberger et al., 2005] illustrate the differentiated treatment of the body according to the theoretical points of view of the authors.</span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><u>An Incarnate Being</u> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Jean-Michel Berthelot emphasizes, however, that the body is "a privileged place for the intelligibility of the social" [p. 83], in which the biological and the social are articulated, physical determinations and symbolic resonances, the collective and the individual, the structural and the actantial, the cause and the sense, the rationality and the imagination, the constraint and freedom. He then engaged sociologists to make a real sociology of the body in which the body would be an epistemological vector: the body as producer and being produced, a place of suffering and pleasure, alienation and reappropriation, and affects. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
It is also against dualisms of all kinds that Anglo-Saxon authors have elaborated the notion of embodiment. Central to feminist studies, this notion aims to show that the subject is an incarnate being. The collective under the title Embodiment and Experience [Csordas, 1994] is inspired by phenomenology to renew the analysis of the body in anthropology: The body is not a passive object on which culture is inscribed; it is not reduced to representations or to being a biological organism or a center of individual consciousness. The authors show how the body expresses emotions, experience pain or political violence. However, in the absence of a consideration of bodies in action, this phenomenology falls into a "metaphor of being-in-the-world" [Warnier, 1999a]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
The theories of social incorporation or embodiment forget that the body is matter, as objects are. The materiality of bodies is not the exclusive domain of the organic: moving, grasping, caressing, carrying, bumping, these daily renewed actions are possible because the body is matter and encounters other matter, other bodies and objects. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
<b>The Subject Against Objects…Very Close Against </b></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">According to Dominique Desjeux et al. [1998, p. 193] there are four ways of looking at objects: as a sign (Semprini), as an analyzer of action (Desjeux, Kaufmann), as actant (Latour) as matter (Warnier and the research group Matière à Penser, MàP). If all these approaches theoretically integrate the relation between subjects and objects, they do not always raise the question of the effect, on the subject itself, of action on objects and on others. "What does this do to the subject?", as Jean-Pierre Warnier put it, and "How does that work?” are questions that are far from being resolved. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><u>Alienation?</u> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Yet, as early as the nineteenth century, philosophy was traversed by the question of alienation. Marx (1867) explores the modalities of alienation in the creation and use (praxis) of objects, and introduces into the analysis, the political and social dimensions of this process. The workers who produce cannot reclaim the fruit of their labor because it does not belong to them. Objects thus become a means of power of the ruling class over the working class: through the management of scarcity of products, the rates imposed by machines, but also because of the possibility of replacing humans by machines in increasingly complex actions. In the capitalist framework, the process of alienation is reduced to its negative part, the appropriation of objects being impossible for the majority of the population which nevertheless produces them. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Marx's contribution is to have introduced power into the relationship between individuals and objects by taking into account their materiality and that of their bodies: "It is first of all evident that a worker who, throughout his life, performs one and the same simple operation, transforms his whole body into the automatic and special organ of this operation, which he accomplishes in less time than the workman who alternately performs a whole series of operations." [Marx, 1919]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
Marx's heirs often reduced the idea of alienation to a moral and political debate about the positive or negative aspects of the relation to the object. In the sciences of technology, this is considered by some to be binding on the bodies and by others to liberate the mind. Feminist studies, which rarely work directly on material culture, call upon it either to demonstrate the exercise of male power over women's bodies (technology is directly suspected as a so-called masculine attribute), or to illustrate the capacity of creative women to appropriate it to build their own subjectivity [Davis, 1997]. Finally, consumer goods are reduced either to the expression of the power of international firms or to the tool of a creation of the <i>self</i>. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Are objects binding or liberating? Undoubtedly both, in their dialectical relations to subjects. According to Miller (1987), although Hegel, unlike Marx, is not interested in the materiality of objects, it allows us to understand consumption as a means "by which society reappropriates its external form [material culture] that is, assimilates its own culture and uses it to develop itself." [1987, p. 16]. From the concepts of Hegel's alienation and mediation, which he unites under the neologism of "objectification," Miller explores the modalities of the mutual construction of society and its cultural forms through social subjects, individual or collective. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/08/julien/images/soccer_sm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/08/julien/images/soccer_sm.jpg" data-original-height="384" data-original-width="576" height="266" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">WSDOT Soccer. World Cup tournament held at Perrigo Park in Redmond. CC BY 2.0, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/wsdot/7462260490/" target="_blank">Image Credit.</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This analysis can be applied to areas other than consumption. In the case of sports practices, an individual cannot become a footballer before having touched a ball and played in a team. The ball pre-exists the footballer, but as long as it is not used, it is an inert thing that can have multiple roles, although it was originally designed for football practice. It is in the process of invention-appropriation, or alienation-mediation, that resides the reciprocal construction of the subject-footballer and the object-soccer ball. The first time the player touches the ball, he is awkward and is completely absorbed in sending this ball exactly where he wants it: he only thinks about his relationship to the ball. The mastery comes later, the control of the ball is gradually inscribed in the person, to the point that, if the player becomes a good dribbler, the others will be able to designate him by this quality. It is this total process, through which the subject and the object are constructed together and for each other, which Miller designates by the term of objectification.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The analyses of the relations between objects and subjects in terms of constraint or freedom operates a rupture in the objectification described by Miller. The philosophers who define the technique as escaping the control of humans are called discontinuists [Goffi, 1988]. But subject-object relations are not static and cannot be reduced to the two terms that compose it: they are dynamic and continuous processes allow both the construction of individuals and of societies. The question then is to understand how this objectification is made possible. One of the answers given by continuists in philosophy, but also by anthropologists and paleontologists, is to re-evaluate the limits of the body, what is specific to it (subject) and what is external to it (ob-ject). It is on the basis of this questioning that the relationship between objects and subjects is conceived. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><u>Human Objects and Mechanical Bodies</u> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Many philosophers and anthropologists are inspired by Aristotle to understand the quasi-organic links that would unite human beings with objects: the hand of man is polyfunctional, that is to say that it contains a multitude of tools and, at the same time, unlike animals, humans possess tools that are external to the body. Tortoises have a carapace to sleep or protect themselves, but they cannot remove them to swim. To Aristotle, the organism is thus associated with a machine. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
The idea of an analogy between the human body and tools or machines goes through the history of philosophy and medicine (for example, in Descartes or Borelli), and has been fueling for three hundred years the imagination of engineers and artisans wanting to explore the boundaries between the animate and the inanimate [Morus, 2002]. This analogy has strong implications, for example in the teaching of gymnastics in the nineteenth century: fatigue is seen as a residue of combustion, heat as a generator of movement. Mauss, for instance, learns to swim like a steamboat.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
Ernst Kapp (1808-1896), one of the founders of the philosophy of techniques and a disciple of Hegel, considers tools as the prolongation of human organs in motion: the closed hand gives birth to the hammer by an analogy not only of forms, but also functions in the structure of body movements. This organic projection or "exudation" is not the result of a rational activity, but of an unconscious impulse. He envisages "technical inventions as material realizations of the imagination and technical activity as the projection of our organs" [Goffi, 1988, p. 77]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
The majority of his successors of the twentieth century retain the idea that tools are a material translation of an immaterial datum: material culture is a sign and symbol of ideas [Pitt-Rivers, in Schlereth, 1993], technique is psychic expression [Mumford, 1950], the concretization of the object is "the physical translation of an intellectual system" [Simondon, 1958, p. 46]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The analogy between objects and subjects is surpassed by Leroi-Gourhan who proposes that we think of technique as an integral part of the human being, as exteriorization, and the object as a prosthesis. As a continuation of his work, researchers at Compiègne University of Technology show that if the tool is an external memory of society, it has two modes of operation: "seized" and "deposited". Seized, the tool is practically part of the body; when it is deposited, human beings release their imagination to invent and make new objects [Lenay et al., 2002]. "What characterizes the tool is the to-and-fro between these two modes." (p. 216]. According to the authors, the distinction between the inventor, the manufacturer and the user makes the tool a profoundly social object.
The idea of objects as an extension of the body, as prostheses, is also found in certain Anglo-Saxon feminists, in the same desire to break with a logic of opposition. Thus, the cyborg [Haraway, 1991] is a hybrid of human and machine: the body extends to cyberspace through the computer that allows the body to communicate and feel, to the point where the boundaries between the computer network, self, body and environment disappear. If Leroi-Gourhan's approach biologizes the tools, Donna Haraway reduces the body, despite the initial ambition, to technological artefacts that can be transformed (into a raw material), transcended or even erased. It seems that, between subjects and material objects, there can be only a competitive relationship from which a victor must emerge: the human is mechanized or the object becomes human. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/08/julien/images/cyborg_sm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/08/julien/images/cyborg_sm.jpg" data-original-height="384" data-original-width="576" height="266" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cyborg from the Teen Titans. New York Comicon, 2014. CC BY 2.0, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/istolethetv/15532386802/" target="_blank">Image Credit</a>.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For Bruno Latour [1991, 1996], this pitfall is inherited from modern philosophy: it separates not only the body from the spirit, but also objects from humans, the social representations of material constraints, only to try to understand their dynamic relations, or to synthesize them, in a second phase. This separation is specific to so-called "modern" societies. Latour refuses this "purification / conjunction", as we saw in his discussion with Pierre Lemonnier on the technical question, and proposes "not to regard objects as objects but as partners associated with humans, evidently as much the old material world as the old human world". He considers the actor and the object as two elements of a "hybrid," two elements whose importance and role are equal within this hybrid. Latour's approach is epistemologically interesting, but it can raise ethical questions if reasoning, pushed to its completion, makes object and subject equal. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The relationship between objects and subjects is not just a conflictual relationship, but it can be. It is not a relationship of analogy or reduction from one of the components to the other. We maintain, with the great majority of the objects that surround us, a close and implicit relationship which participates in our construction as a subject. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Construction of Subjects</b> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><u>Symbolization in Action</u> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Many psychologists have stressed the importance of the process of introjection and projection in objects and in others, from birth, for the construction of subjects (Piaget, 1937; Klein, 1952; Winnicott, 1971; Dolto, 1984]. In particular, we will explore the research of the psychoanalyst Serge Tisseron who wanted to integrate the dimensions of the biological, psychological and sociological in his analysis. Subjects are constructed through three types of symbolization: sensori-affectivo-motor, visual and verbal [1999]. Symbolization leads "sensations, emotions and body states experienced in certain intense experiences to the creation of representations which, at the same time, testify to these states, allowing them to be recalled and entered into a relational dynamic. [...] Some objects contribute, others oppose it"[p. 21].</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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To understand how material culture affects the subject, let us take an example of sensorial-affective-motor symbolism given by Tisseron in an oral communication at the University of Paris-V. Behind a window, he observed a woman walking in the street accompanied by three little girls. She seems hurried and is walking fast. The sidewalk is congested and she stumbles on a sheet metal. She loses her balance but re-establishes it. She turns, looks at the sheet, curses it and goes on. Presumably, the incident disrupted the girls. The first goes to the metal plate and imitates the woman: she strikes the sheet, pretends to fall and regains balance, turns, pronounces a few words and joins the woman. The second performs the same sequence of actions. The third, smaller, pretends to hit the sheet with her foot and catches up with the others. Thus, the small girls reproduced the incident, but immediately gave it a meaning: that of the gestures and words made by the woman with regard to the sheet. This attitude was dictated both by the pain (dorsal or foot), which caused a strong emotion (redness in the face, feeling of shame), and was able to express itself verbally because of a socio-cultural context in which this sheet metal in the middle of the pavement is interpreted as not being in its place, even dangerous. Through the sharing of this experience, the woman transmitted to her little girls a meaning to the meeting of her foot with the sheet metal and to the emotion felt. Symbolization has transformed an action that is at once physical, psychological and social into representation. Now, the little girls have learned a form of reaction to this kind of situation that is a priori socially acceptable since it comes from an adult. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
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The other two forms of symbolization are also regularly mobilized whenever possible. Since movement is by nature ephemeral, the advantage of image symbolization is to add a permanent trace to what can be looked at, touched or felt. On the other hand, speech and words provide abstract means of recalling events, facts, images, ideas, at will, and make it possible to communicate them. Moreover, this third means of symbolization makes it possible to elaborate a critical point of view on its own experience and its symbolization, particularly by discussing it with others. The mastery of these three modes of symbolization follows the evolution of the child, but once the language has been mastered, all three modes are used throughout life. Tisseron's work shows that these three types of symbolization can be contradictory to each other, thus highlighting the non-uniqueness of the subject, which can lead to madness in extreme cases. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The woman's foot hitting the sheet metal is a troubling experience in the sense that it engenders a disorder that is especially emotional, but also because it disturbs the implicit nature of a daily walk on a Parisian sidewalk.</span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><u>Incorporating Objects</u> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The ease with which everyday objects are forgotten is disconcerting. There are two ways of understanding it: either the object has been stored in a cabinet and escapes the senses, or the object is integrated into daily actions and no longer attracts any special attention. Be that as it may, the forgetting of the matter of objects, even the objects themselves, is partly related to our corporeal commitment, i.e., our actions or non-actions on objects. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">How is it that when we wear new shoes they make us suffer the first few days, but are now forgotten to the point where we could doubt, at least corporeally, their very existence? We incorporated them into our feet. This does not mean that they merge with our foot or that the foot has become a shoe, but they have become prostheses. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">A biological conception of the body does not make it possible to assert the prosthetic character of the boot in the same way as an artificial hand: it does not replace a failing member. Yet, like the rider and his mount [Jousse, 1974], the pilot and his plane [Berthoz, 1997], we are one with the objects that we have incorporated. To admit that objects can be real prostheses forces us to consider Man, following Mauss, as a physio-psycho-sociological whole. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/08/julien/images/rider-horse_sm.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/08/julien/images/rider-horse_sm.jpg" data-original-height="486" data-original-width="576" height="337" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Jousting game, Spain. Dan Brickley. CC BY 2.0, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/danbri/1178316828/" target="_blank">Image Credit.</a></td></tr>
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</div>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The body schema, or body image, can be an analytical tool that allows us to think about this incorporation. Paul Schilder [1935] has given this concept its present form: it is a dynamic system integrating all the perceptions of the organism, which allows the subject to have a three-dimensional representation conscientized or conscientisable of himself. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The body schema can incorporate elements of the outer world and "spread in space" [1935, p. 229]: it is plastic. I incorporate my shoes in this double movement. Moreover, sensations do not occur at the point of contact between the body and an object, but at the end of the object. The foot does not feel the leather of the shoe, but the ground it treads. Finally, the perceptual body, whose senses are informed by affects and culture, incorporates objects into action. Footwear is incorporated by walking. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">On the basis of identical observations, Maurice Merleau-Ponty [1945] uses the term "body synthesis" to place perception at the center of "being in the world". Learning new movements presupposes the power we have to expand our body as a being in the world or to change its mode of existence by appending new instruments to it. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">These ideas are supported by research on the ghost limb in neurology: persistent sensations in the amputated limb, such as pain, also include the sensation of the ring around the finger [Ramachandran and Hirstein, 1998]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">On the psychological level, the unconscious image of the body sometimes supplants the body schema [Dolto, 1984], reducing the latter to its strictly physiological dimension. However, from 1935 onwards, Schilder integrates the three dimensions of biology, psychology and anthropology. In the development of the child, the construction of the image of the body is revealed by specular recognition or the possibility of recognizing oneself in a mirror. It turns out that the animals capable of this recognition are also those who use tools, excluding for example, dogs.. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The corporeal schema is educated and also socially constructed: Hans Joas [1999] shows the primary role of intersubjective structures, of the interactions of bodies, in the relation to his own body of the acting subject. The relation to the other (incarnate) is implied in the constitution of the social subject. These interactions transform it into its cognitive, emotional, psychophysiological, psychological and social dimensions, because they can also lead to a genuine incorporation of the body of others: in co-operative relations in work, in sports and in children’s education. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The incorporation is not so much that of objects as that of enacted objects: the tennis player does not incorporate his racket, but his racquet in reverse or in a forehand, with a given power and ball effects, A position on the ground, a particular moment in the sequence of gestures. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Incorporation is therefore the transition from a relation of externality to the "self-evident", a relation of evidence, making the synthesis between time (learning and its actualization in a given situation), space, The acting subject, other humans and the object. Disturbance of any of these factors may lead to permanent or temporary excorporation of the objects. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The incorporation of objects is not determined once and for all, even if traces left after the excorporation can be identified: a change of shoes always requires adaptation to the new pair, certainly because they are new but also because they are different from those which have been incorporated into the step previously. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The incorporation of objects is part of a set of mechanisms which reveals the indispensability of material culture to every action and demonstrates the reciprocal construction of the acting objects and the bodies in action or, to put it differently, objects and subjects. The distinction that Mauss makes between technique of instrument and technique of the body rests on a very reductive conception of technique, of matter, of gesture and therefore of their relations. Marie-Pierre Julien [Julien and Warnier, 1999] shows that he cannot describe the techniques of the body without himself mobilizing the objects on which they are based: the high heels of women, the spades of the French and English soldiers. The rupture is what does not allow him to understand why he cannot walk with slippers when he can do so with shoes. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<u><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Subject of the King, Subject of the Verb </span></span></span></span></span></span></u><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The use of the term "subject" is shared by many fields: medicine, experimental psychology, law, philosophy, linguistics, political science, psychoanalysis, sociology, history. The 1950s and 1960s, however, were marked by the "death certificate" of the subject, who, it was said, had died under the redoubled blows of the sciences of man and society, especially structuralism. We received the announcement, but if we do not go to his funeral, it is because this notion still has something to say to us on condition that we take cognizance of the subject that was buried. The subject as a pure consciousness, as understood by the French philosophy of consciousness, from "Descartes to Sartre", called for moral responsibility, political commitment, freedom and especially unity. A coherent subject, full of his achievements, is apparently dead. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Michel Foucault [1994] is interested in the two meanings of the word "subject" - which Arnaud Arendt [1961] defined both as an actor and a patient: "subject as subjected to the other by control and dependence, attached to one's own identity through consciousness or self-knowledge. In both cases, this word suggests a form of power that subjugates and subjugates "[p. 227]. Sylvie Fainzang (2001) uses the definition of an anthropologist in the study of the patient, the doctor and the prescription: "The use made here of the word" subject "...is to refer to the individual's acting and acting character, that is to say to the partly chosen and partly imposed role that the individual is called upon to play. The individual is a subject, as is the subject of the verb, that is, the author and sometimes the master of his acts, but he is also subject as the subject of the king, that is to say, partly subject to, or subservient to, a force that surpasses it, in this case social determinants, the political context and cultural influences, in other words, other laws and rules than its own." </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This subject is not far from the man of Rousseau, born free and everywhere in chains, except the chronology of the states (at first free, then in chains). Human beings are subjects because they are caught in networks of actions on the actions of others (Foucault) involving other humans and subjects. These networks are described by Elias through the notions of systems of interdependence and configurations. In court society, Elias (1969) shows how it is impossible to understand the government of France under the monarchy of the Sun King without inscribing Louis XIV among the courtiers. To attend the rising of the king is an honor. Absolute monarch, the king exercises his power by accepting or refusing this or that in his room. However, as soon as he wakes up, his actions are subject to the eyes of the courtiers. In Versailles, all the gestures of one are subject to the gaze of the others. Valets and nobles thus exercise supervision and control of the actions of each one. This explains why courtiers never stay there for very long. The Sun King, his courtiers and all the servants cannot exist without the others: "There is a fabric of interdependencies within which the individual finds a margin of individual choice and which at the same time imposes limits to his freedom of choice." [1969, p. LXXI]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The subject in question is hence a social subject both actor and acted upon, a concrete part of networks of actions and interdependencies. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">According to Maurice Godelier [1984, p. 9], "unlike other social animals, men are not satisfied with living in society, they produce society to live; in the course of their existence, they invent new ways of thinking and acting on themselves as well as on nature that surrounds them. They therefore produce culture, and make history, History." Culture is constructed in actions on matter. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Objects become material culture when they are integrated into shared actions, that is to say, a source of union and disunion, as Joël Candau defines it: "By this ambiguous character, the word "sharing" refers perfectly to the two modes of sharing which constitute the object of anthropology: the moment when the ties between individuals are formed or, when these ties preexist, the moment when they unravel. In short, we must try to understand this particular, singular moment when the social, the cultural is born, gives itself form or sometimes dies or is annihilated. Thus, anthropology "has the vocation of explaining at the outset the always mysterious circumstances which make it possible that material or ideal ties are tied (or untied) between individuals, thus allowing the emergence of a modality of the social that is 'culture' or 'society' or, more modestly, to be considered as a social or cultural phenomenon. This is the time of sharing." (Candau, 2000, p. 113]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The pen, the amphitheater, the mobile phone and the lodging of a room are shared by students and constitute in this sense elements of student material culture. But that is not enough. The reflections of the French research group MàP invite us to take into account what is at stake in action on matter, which is the encounter between embedded knowledge and reflexivity, matter and ideas, humans and objects, in given time-spaces. And what is at stake is not only the production of physical environments by actors: pens, laptops, housing, etc. constitute the material culture of students because these subjects, by incorporating them, are constructed as students. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><u>The Unspeakable</u> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Objects belong to a universe of the unspeakable: they do not speak and it is not always obvious that one should speak about them. Caught up in everyday actions, they often tell us more about what to do than what to say. The "practical sense" provides, according to Bourdieu [1980, p. 115], a "mute experience of the world as self-evident". Many researchers have thus shown that the action is not always embarrassed by explanation or even comment. Marie-Noëlle Chamoux [1996], in support of the data collection work prior to the Diderot's Encyclopaedia, highlights the difficulty of putting into words the action and in particular the technical action: "The action and the discourse on action are not to be confused "(1996, p. 3]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">How then can we understand what is not of the order of saying, but of the order of doing? Labor psychologists and ergonomists are confronted with these methodological problems, which seek to understand or improve the working conditions of operators. The know-how of those whom they consider to be experts is little or not explicable, so it is rather an implicit knowledge emerging from their in situ experience. Knowledge often exceeds what we are able to say. It is because "man is an animal that thinks with his fingers," according to Maurice Halbwachs [Warnier, 1999a]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Even if the subject does not speak, bodily practices, especially during learning, are accompanied by language practices [Faure, 2000]. In the transmission of know-how, there is certainly knowledge of the body [Chevallier, 1991] based on material culture, but there are also words whose sole purpose is to explain action as something to do or not to do: in physical practices, the counting of danced gestures, the professor's phrase that rhythms the activity at the beginning of each exercise, also participate in a "learning by body" [Faure, 2000]. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/08/julien/images/boxers_sm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2017/08/julien/images/boxers_sm.jpg" data-original-height="432" data-original-width="576" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">"Boxing Evening", Lorenzo Bittini. CC BY 2.0, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/beatfat/1685727127/" target="_blank">Image Credit.</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In order to understand action, the relationship to objects, and language interactions in the context of work, sports or everyday life, some researchers choose a method of ethnography that pushes the point of participant observation, to the verge of making themselves as others: Diderot enters the workshops and then becomes an apprentice, Hutchins becomes a jetliner pilot and Loïc Wacquant [2000] is initiated into the practice of the boxing. All three thus engage their bodies in material cultures specific to social groups. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>References:</b> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">BANCEL N., BLANCHARD P., BOETSCH G., DEROO E. et LEMAIRE S. [2004], <i>Zoos humains. Au temps des exhibitions humaines,</i> Paris, La Découverte/Poche (1re éd. 2002). </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">BROMBERGER C., DURET P., KAUFMANN J.-C., LE BRETON D., SINGLY F. DE et VIGARELLO G. [2005], <i>Un corps pour soi, </i>Paris, PUF, « Pratiques physiques et société ». </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">BRUNEAU P. et BALUT P.-Y. [1989], « Artistique et archéologie », <i>MAGE,</i> nº 1, Paris, Presse de l’université de Paris Sorbonne, mémoire d’archéologie générale. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">CANDAU J. [2000], <i>Mémoires et expériences olfactives. Anthropologie d’un savoir-faire sensoriel,</i> Paris, PUF, « Sociologie d’aujourd’hui ». </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">CHAMOUX M.-N. [1996], « Les difficultés d’accès au savoir d’autrui », <i>Techniques et culture. Accès au savoir d’autrui,</i> nº 28, Paris, Maison des Sciences de l’Homme. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">CHEVALLIER D. (dir.) [1991], <i>Savoir faire et pouvoir transmettre. Transmission et apprentissage des savoir-faire et des techniques,</i> Paris, Maison des Sciences de l’Homme. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">CONEIN B., DODIER N. et THÉVENOT L. [1993], <i>Les Objets dans l’action. De la maison au laboratoire, </i>Paris, Maison des Sciences de l’Homme. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">CSORDAS T. J. [1994], <i>Embodiment and Experience, </i>Londres, Cambridge University Press. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">DAENINCKX D. [1998], <i>Cannibale,</i> Paris, Verdier. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">DEBRAY R. [1994], <i>Manifestes médiologiques, </i>Paris, Gallimard.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">DESJEUX D., MONJARET A. et TAPONIER S. [1998], <i>Quand les Français déménagent. Circulation des objets domestiques et rituels de mobilités dans la vie quotidienne en France,</i> Paris, PUF. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">DOLTO F. [1984], <i>L’Image inconsciente du corps, </i>Paris, Seuil. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">ELIAS N. [1985], <i>La Société de cour,</i> Paris, Flammarion (1re éd. 1969). </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">FAINZANG S. [2001], <i>Médicaments et société. Le patient, le médecin et l’ordonnance, </i>Paris, PUF. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">FAURE S. [2000], <i>Apprendre par corps: socio-anthropologie des techniques de danse,</i> Paris, La Dispute. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">FOUCAULT M. [1994], <i>Dits et Écrits,</i> vol. IV, 1980-1988, Paris, Gallimard, « NRF ». </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">GLADWIN T. [1970], <i>East is a Big Bird: Navigation and Logic on Puluwat Atoll,</i> Cambridge, Harvard University Press. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">GODELIER M. [1984], <i>L’Idéel et le matériel. Pensée, économies, sociétés, </i>Paris, Fayard. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">GOFFI J.-Y. [1988], <i>La Philosophie de la technique,</i> Paris, PUF, « Que sais-je ? ». </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">HARAWAY D. [1991], <i>Simians, Cyborgs and Women,</i> New York, Routledge. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">HUTCHINS E. [1994], « Comment le “cockpit” se souvient de ses vitesses », Travail et cognition,<i> Sociologie du travail, </i>nº XXXVI, 4/94, Paris, Dunod. </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-4792008600966720842017-06-30T09:34:00.001-07:002017-06-30T14:28:04.249-07:00A Bourdieusian Take on the Imperial Patronage of Cloisonné in Qing China<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/julie-bellemare.html" target="_blank">Julie Bellemare</a>
relates the imperial patronage of cloisonné objects for religious and secular purposes in eighteenth-century China to an increased taste for colorful and dazzling surfaces. She uses the ideas of Pierre Bourdieu and Alfred Gell to unpack the significance of this technical enchantment, and to clarify and complicate questions of taste, class, and ethnic identity in the Chinese production and consumption of cloisonné. Bellemare argues that the non-Chinese origins of the medium made it adaptable to the evolving needs of display and an ideal canvas for imperial decoration.</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">MLA citation format:</span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"> <span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Julie Bellemare</span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> "A Bourdieusian Take on the Imperial Patronage of Cloisonné in Qing China"</span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions.</i> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">30 June 2017. Web. [date of access]</span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/06/Bellemare/images/Boddhisatva2.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/06/Bellemare/images/Boddhisatva2.jpg" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="620" height="320" width="248" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Shrine
with an Image of a Bodhisattva, 1736-1795. Shrine: Cloisonné enamel on
copper alloy; Image: Copper with semiprecious stones, 25 1/4 x 14 3/8 x
10 5/8 in. (64.1 x 36.5 x 27 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Gift of Samuel P.
Avery, Jr., 09.520a-b. Creative Commons-BY (Photo: Brooklyn Museum).</td></tr>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Introduction</span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The following thought experiment is an attempt to explain the Qing taste for colorful cloisonné objects through the patronage practices of Qing rulers, more specifically the Kangxi (1662-1722), Yongzheng (1723-35) and Qianlong (1735-1796) emperors, whose embrace of this medium warrants closer examination. It is worth noting that the Qing was a foreign dynasty with its roots in the north of China, and that its rulers considered themselves ethnically different from Han Chinese, identifying instead as Jurchen or Manchu. They conquered most of China by unifying Manchu and Mongol tribes and allying with Northern Chinese, organized into banners of different ranks. I want to explore how these rulers could have utilized cloisonné to differentiate themselves from traditional Han Chinese elites. I will argue that because it was technically difficult to produce, cloisonné was used to demonstrate superiority, while its patterned surfaces indexed the diversity at the heart of the Qing Empire. I will mainly use Pierre Bourdieu’s <i>Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste</i> (1984) to clarify and complicate some of these questions of taste, class, and ethnic identity in the production and consumption of cloisonné in eighteenth-century China. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">As much as Bourdieu’s detailed examination of class hierarchies and consumptive practices is relevant to these questions, the exercise of applying it to eighteenth-century Chinese society comes with several pitfalls. Importantly, Bourdieu’s project tackled the power dynamics within his own contemporary society, which do not necessarily map onto the social class distinctions of eighteenth-century China. His notion of “habitus” is particularly difficult to address. Bourdieu’s approach takes into account both social and cultural structures as well as individual practices. The former he terms “fields,” networks of relations animated and constrained by systems of power, while the latter he calls “habitus,” unconscious cultural conventions of behavior that reflect individual sensibility and agency. He states that taste is social necessity made second nature, “turned into muscular patterns and bodily automatisms”.[i] These embodied practices can hardly be extrapolated from texts alone. Ming and Qing writings about taste admittedly fall more securely within the category of “fields,” since people’s practices are difficult to reconstruct accurately within a historical framework. It is not clear whether the prescriptive writings of the literatus and arbiter of taste Wen Zhenheng (1585-1645), for instance, reflected actual practices, or if they enshrined idealized forms of consumption. It is therefore more realistic to address the normative structures of class tastes than to infer people’s actual behaviors and actions from limited or biased historical records. To this end, perhaps Michael Baxandall’s “period eye” is also a useful model for reconstructing ways of seeing and experiencing the material world in Qing China. Baxandall defines the period eye as the mental equipment a person uses to order his or her visual experience; this equipment is culturally relative and determined by the society that influences this experience.[ii] It consists of variables such as the “categories with which he classifies his visual stimuli, the knowledge he will use to supplement what his immediate vision gives him, and the attitude he will adopt to the kind of artificial object seen”.[iii] In short, it hinges on the viewer’s “cognitive style” (mental habits parallel to Bourdieu’s embodied ones) and his or her interpretive frameworks, which align (or not) with those of the artist or maker to produce either appreciation or misunderstanding. Looking at cloisonné, it appears that some members of the literati elite did not appreciate its vibrant colors and dense patterns, interpreting them as a form of gaudiness unsuitable for the austere interiors of their studios. Qing emperors, however, could have seen the complexity of these objects as technological innovations that surpassed all that had been produced in the past. This point will be developed in more detail later. </span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The Production of Cloisonné </span></span></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The public furnishings [altar set] currently at the Temple of Benevolence are not good. Basing yourself on the cloisonné of the Hall of Long Life, make one set, and ensure its size matches that of the supporting table. Respect this imperial order.</span></span></span></i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[iv] </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">This order for a new set of cloisonné ritual vessels is a typical example of a commission to the Imperial Workshops given under the Yongzheng emperor in the early years of his reign. As opposed to his immediate predecessor and successor, the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors, Yongzheng was not particularly fond of cloisonné, yet there is evidence of his continued patronage of this medium for ritual and religious purposes. In the Qing period, cloisonné objects were used for secular purposes as wine containers or desk decorations, but they were also commissioned in sets for religious altars and sacrificial halls. Although they were mainly used in Buddhist contexts, they were also appropriate for Daoist temples.[v] Known for its colorful and variegated surfaces, cloisonné is a complex technique that requires the collaboration of several specialized craftsmen. The body of a cloisonné piece is first cast in bronze, and metal wire is then welded onto its surface, creating small enclosures (<i>cloisons</i> in French), that are then filled with colored enamels. The piece is fired in a muffle kiln, polished, and gilded. This process requires advanced technical knowledge, division of labor, and access to resources, all of which can only be realized in a highly organized production line. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The technique originated in the Mediterranean basin as early as 1500 BCE, but flourished in the Byzantine Empire between the eighth and fourteenth centuries. It attained a high degree of sophistication in the Islamic world before slowly reaching China during the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368). The earliest source testifying to the presence of cloisonné enamels in China is the <i>Gegu yaolun</i> (The Essential Criteria of Antiquities), written by Cao Zhao in 1388. Of cloisonné, he writes: “The body is made of copper; for the decoration in five colors, molten substances are used, similar to inlay work from the Frankish Lands [Folang]. I have seen incense burners, flower vases, boxes, small bowls, and the like, appropriate for a lady’s chamber but not for the study of a scholar of cool, reticent taste” (Fig. 1).[vi] This bias against the aesthetics of cloisonné continued through the rest of the Ming period (1368-1644). Gao Lian (1573-1620) referred to it as “Muslim ware,” (<i>dashi yao</i>) and ranked it the worst of all kiln wares, while Wen Zhenheng saw it as too ostentatious and vulgar to put next to a painting.[vii] It is interesting that these authors saw cloisonné as feminine, foreign, or just too colorful. Generally speaking, Chinese literati tended to prefer a more subdued aesthetic, epitomized by monochrome ink painting. Color was not rendered literally, but implicit in the gradations of black ink, as Tang-dynasty scholar Zhang Yanyuan noted: “One may be said to have fulfilled one’s aim when the five colors are all present in the management of ink [alone]”.[viii] </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/06/Bellemare/images/Bowl.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2017/06/Bellemare/images/Bowl.jpg" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="800" height="240" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Figure 1.</b> Bowl with the Eight Buddhist Treasures, Ming dynasty (1368–1644), 16th century, China, cloisonné enamel, H. 5 5/8 in. (14.3 cm); Diam. 11 1/2 in. (29.2 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Edward G. Kennedy, 1929, 29.110.88.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">While in the Ming dynasty, cloisonné was patronized on a small scale by the imperial court and collected by private individuals,[ix] the Qing period (1644-1911) saw an expansion of the imperial workshops and a tremendous increase in the production of cloisonné wares, which were created in workshops located in Guangdong province, and near Beijing at the Summer Palace (<i>Yuanming yuan</i>), where six more locations for the Enameling Workshop were added in 1741 in order to meet the demands of the imperial court.[x] Cloisonné was held in particularly high esteem by Qing emperors, who ordered large quantities of objects to furnish newly built courts, palaces, and temples. This growth is surprising, considering the aforementioned assessments of cloisonné by literati and tastemakers belonging to the Chinese educated elite. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><b>Taste, Enchantment, and the Imperial Use of Cloisonné</b> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">I had started this essay by invoking Bourdieu’s concept of “habitus”—one that he applied in a specific analysis of the tastes of the “bourgeois,” “middle-brow,” and “popular” classes of 1960s and 1970s France, with correlations to relative levels of education, income, upbringing, and occupation. This class division applies remarkably well to late Ming society, which consisted of a powerful educated elite increasingly threatened by a rising merchant class. Both French bourgeois and Ming Chinese literati derived their position from their high level of education and economic power. Bourdieu defines modern, European bourgeois taste as favoring a combination of ease and asceticism, austerity and restraint, all of these seen as manifestations of excellence.[xi] This attitude is clearly present in Wen Zhenheng’s admonitions, as articulated for instance about furniture design: “[For natural tables], use pieces of thick, wide timber…hollow them out and carve them lightly with designs such as cloud scrolls and <i>ruyi</i> heads. They must not be carved with such vulgar patterns as dragons, phoenixes, flowers, and grasses”.[xii] This literati taste for elegance, antiquity and refinement arose simultaneously or in partial reaction to an upwardly mobile merchant class that benefitted tremendously from the increased maritime trade and economic activity during the latter half of the sixteenth century. In response to this class of nouveaux riches who could afford to purchase expensive luxuries, the educated elite began to differentiate themselves by advocating restraint in ornamentation. The lavishly carved tables derided by Wen Zhenheng were, of course, those preferred by rich merchants who favored conspicuous consumption. Just as Bourdieu’s “middle-brow” class, these tastes were often seen by members of the educated elite as an illegitimate acquisition of cultural forms.[xiii] Middle-brow and popular forms of cultural consumption, according to Bourdieu, involve the viewer and offer more direct and immediate sensory satisfaction.[xiv] In Ming China, this taste translated into a preference for lavish materials, saturated colors, richly carved and lustrous surfaces, whereas in 1960s France, it favored agreeable images such as a sunset over the sea. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">If Bourdieu’s class distinctions map relatively well onto those of Ming China, they fail to explicate the tastes of a new social class that takes power and ultimately forms the Qing dynasty. This stratum of the population is less educated than the literati elite, but nonetheless assumes political and economic power. Bourdieu acknowledges that other states of power relations can exist, resulting in a different configuration of consumptive patterns.[xv] He directs the reader to the work of Norbert Elias on eighteenth and nineteenth-century Germany, which deals with the opposition between the attitudes of the court and those of the intelligentsia. This provides an intriguing parallel for the study of the relations between the Manchu rulers and the literati during the Qing period. Elias observes the sharp social divisions and lack of mobility between the two classes, arguing that this division fostered a rift in values between the courtly “civilization,” characterized by courtesy, ceremony, and formal conversation, and the educated “culture,” defined as “inwardness, depth of feeling, immersion in books, development of individual personality”.[xvi] He quotes Goethe as an exemplar of the intelligentsia: “The people around me had no idea of scholarship. They were German courtiers, and this class had not the slightest <i>Kultur</i>”.[xvii] Manchus and other northerners were at a similar type of disadvantage, not having the same level of access to—or benefitting from a strong cultural emphasis on—education, as opposed to Han Chinese from the south. In the early years of the Qing dynasty, quotas were implemented to increase representation of Manchus in the palace examinations, the meritocratic system that attributed government positions according to one’s knowledge of the classics, history, and government policy. The system, operating intermittently since the Tang dynasty, favored those who could afford the right education and tutoring, and during the Ming, tended to favor Han elites from the cultural powerhouse of the Jiangnan region in south China. In order to give his bannermen a chance to compete, the first Qing emperor put forth a 40:60 Manchu to Han ratio for the palace examination, which was later replaced by completely separate sets of examinations for Han Chinese and all northern bannermen.[xviii] Even with these advantages in place, after 1655, no Manchu ever finished among the prestigious top three places in the palace examinations until 1883. Manchus possessed political and economic power, but not the same level of cultural and academic capital as the literati elite groups traditionally hailing from the south. They were regarded as culturally inferior to the Han Chinese although overt criticism of this status quo was rare and dangerous. Searching for other forms of legitimacy, Manchu rulers explored appropriating symbolic forms of literati culture such as calligraphy and classical learning to finding new sources on which to model their artistic taste. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Even if alternative models might be more closely related to the social structure of Qing China, some of Bourdieu’s key insights are still useful for understanding imperial taste. For Bourdieu, taste is defined relationally. Consumers choose certain cultural goods over others in order to either identify with or defy the dominant aesthetic. He argues that “Goods are converted into distinctive signs, which may be signs of distinction but also of vulgarity, as soon as they are perceived relationally… a class is defined as much by its ‘being-perceived’ as by its ‘being’, by its consumption—which need not be conspicuous in order to be symbolic—as much as by its position in the relations of production”.[ixx] The Manchu rulers, as a new social class superimposing themselves on top of the existing Chinese social structure, had to find a way to simultaneously inscribe themselves within the larger continuity of Chinese aesthetics in order to gain legitimacy as rulers of China, but also distinguish themselves from these same elites in order to assert their dominance and superiority. They achieved this in part by choosing to consume cultural goods endowed with more flamboyant visual qualities, and reorganized workshop production to suit the demands of their tastes. In doing so, they reframed the perception of cloisonné and other colorful forms of material culture from a vulgar to an acceptable, or even desirable, form of display.
It is also important to take into consideration the fact that the Manchu rulers were the representatives of a diverse group of northerners that also included Mongols and northern Chinese. Through diplomatic exchange and conquest, Qing emperors also incorporated Tibetan kingdoms as well as western Turkic and Muslim territories. This diversity was visually translated into several decorative endeavors, such as the construction of palaces at Rehe, and at the Summer Palace in Beijing (where enameling workshops were conveniently located). These architectural projects recreated on a smaller scale the lands conquered by the Qing emperors within large imperial parks, as microcosms of the empire.[xx] The act of naming palaces according to famous sites from China or Tibet, for instance, laid claim to the far reaches of the empire and promoted an incorporation of diversity into a single realm. What ensued in the decorative schemes of these new palaces was not a single coherent style, but an amalgam that suited the purposes of a diverse dynasty.[xxi] </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The impetus to create integrated interiors came with the Yongzheng emperor, and was brought to an extravagant level by the Qianlong emperor, who was more attracted to exotic themes from the outside world. Eclectic, ambitious, and “baroque”, the Qianlong style of cloisonné was a stark departure from most pieces produced during the Ming period. Cloisonné was an important part of the decorative schemes of the newly built palaces. As a hybrid technique that was understood simultaneously as Western, Muslim, and Chinese, it encapsulated the unifying aspirations of the Qing dynasty. This is also seen in the patterns and forms of Qing cloisonné objects, which drew inspiration from a wide array of cultural and geographical sources. Some shapes directly reference ancient Chinese metalwork, while others borrow patterns and iconographies from Himalayan Buddhism and even Italian architecture. This is represented quite strikingly in a large shrine with an image of a <i>bodhisattva </i>(in Tibetan Buddhism, practitioners or deities who delay their own enlightenment in order to help others achieve it), now in the Brooklyn Museum (Fig. 2). While the dragons coiling around the posts and the stylized floral decoration are Chinese, the central figure is modeled in a revival of the Pala style, often seen as a classic mode of Indian Buddhist sculpture, and the shrine’s four posts and canopy are clearly based on the <i>baldachin</i> of St Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican City, a sculpted bronze canopy covering the high altar and marking the location of the tomb of St Peter, created by Gian Lorenzo Bernini a century earlier (Fig. 3). This piece evinces the potential of the medium of cloisonné to take on any shape or form. Because of its non-Chinese origins, it is not constricted by centuries of normative practices, and remains adaptable to the evolving needs of display. Cloisonné is from nowhere and everywhere at the same time, which makes it an ideal canvas for imperial decoration. </span></span></span></div>
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<b>Figure 2 (above) </b>Shrine with an Image of a Bodhisattva, Qianlong period (1736-1795). Shrine: Cloisonné enamel on copper alloy; Image: Copper with semiprecious stones, 25 1/4 x 14 3/8 x 10 5/8 in. (64.1 x 36.5 x 27 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Gift of Samuel P. Avery, Jr., 09.520a-b. Creative Commons-BY (Photo: Brooklyn Museum).<b> </b><br />
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<b>Figure 3 (below)</b> Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Baldachin of St Peter’s Basilica, Vatican City, 1623-34.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">In addition to this semiotic malleability, Qing cloisonné exhibits technical mastery. As mentioned at the beginning of this discussion, the production process requires advanced technical expertise and access to specific materials of a high quality. The result is meant to dazzle the eye with intricate motifs, strong color contrasts, and golden highlights. In this sense, it operates on a psychological and perceptual level, achieving its effect, in the words of Alfred Gell, “via the enchantment cast by its technical means, the manner of its coming into being”.[xxii] No one looks at cloisonné and thinks, “I could make this.” The technical power to make this kind of object is beyond any viewer’s individual capacity, and becomes symbolic of the power of the emperor, enhancing his authority.[xxiii] But beyond visual enchantment, what do the dazzling displays of cloisonné achieve in the minds of their viewers? Perhaps, in addition to indexing the ruler's general prestige and wealth, they might have specific social implications as well. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">A lot of cloisonné objects were displayed in palace halls, where they would be viewed not only by courtiers but also by visiting dignitaries from different parts of the empire as well as from Europe. As part of larger decorative schemes with visually stunning patterns and surfaces, perhaps they also functioned as reminders of the complexity and diversity of the realm, and the power of the emperor to unify it, both territorially and on the surface of his objects. Upon seeing these hybrid objects, perhaps dignitaries felt both a sense of familiarity with the shapes and designs they identified with, while still being dazzled and intimidated by the foreign ones. If this were the case, the Qing style of cloisonné functioned as a simultaneously inclusive and distancing mechanism, one that could invite close relations with dignitaries of any origin, while upholding the superiority of the emperor. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Although the imperial taste of Qing-dynasty emperors bears similarities to Bourdieu’s middle-brow aesthetic by virtue of appealing to the viewer and providing sensory stimulation, it is far more than an aesthetic of agreeableness. The Qing mixture of technological, cultural, and political power departs from Bourdieu’s framework entirely, and functions to promote the Qing ruler as a universal emperor. By fully embracing and adapting this ‘foreign’ medium to their needs, the Manchu elites found a way to differentiate themselves from the Chinese literati class. The use of different motifs and shapes of cloisonné made it familiar to a wide range of viewers, while its level of intricacy showed the Qing dynasty’s unsurpassed technical superiority, impressing on viewers the desire of the emperor to foster harmonious relations across a highly diverse empire. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><b>Endnotes</b> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[i] Pierre Bourdieu, <i>Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste,</i> (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984), 474.</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[ii] Michael Baxandall, <i>Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style</i> (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 40. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[iii] <i>Idem. </i></span></span></span></div>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[iv] <i>Qinggong neiwufu zaobanchu dang’an zonghui</i> [Archives of the Workshops of the Imperial Household Department], Vol. 1 (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 2005), 752. My translation. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[v] Pengliang Lu, “Beyond the Women’s Quarters: Meaning and Function of Cloisonné in the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” in <i>Cloisonné: Chinese Enamels from the Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties,</i> (New York, New Haven, London: Bard Graduate Center and Yale University Press, 2011), 70. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[vi] Cao Zhao, translated by Sir Percival David and Béatrice Quette, from <i>Cloisonné: Chinese Enamels from the Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties</i> (New York, New Haven: Bard Graduate Center, Yale University Press, 2011), 7. The use of the term “five colors” (<i>wucai</i>) requires some explanation. In a strict sense, it refers to a porcelain decoration technique in which colored enamels are applied over a plain background, but it also has cosmological ramifications, whereby each color is associated to a cardinal direction. The term may therefore refer not just to a set of colors, but to every possible color, just as in English the ‘four corners of the earth’ is used to mean ‘the whole world.’ “Five colors” (<i>wucai</i>) could therefore also be translated as ‘all colors,’ ‘multicolored,’ or ‘polychrome.’ </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[vii] Gao Lian, <i>Zunsheng bajian,</i> (Beijing: Shumu wenxian chubanshe, 1988), yuan 14; Wen Zhenheng, <i>Zhangwu zhi, </i>(Hong Kong: Dizhi wenhua chuban youxian gongsi, 2002), yuan 5. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[viii] Zhang Yanyuan. “Li dai ming hua zhi (ca. 847),” in <i>Early Chinese Texts on Painting, </i>edited by Susan Bush, Hsio-yen Shih, and Hsüeh-yen Shih, (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1985), 62. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[ix] Sun Chengze (1592-1676), a Beijing-based statesman and art collector, notes in a memoir that cloisonné pieces from the Jingtai reign (1449-57), seen as the zenith of quality, fetched the highest prices at the local antique market, indicating that antique cloisonné was valued in certain contexts outside the court. Pengliang Lu, “Beyond the Women’s Quarters,” 64. For Ming court patronage of cloisonné, see Zhang Rong, “Cloisonné for the Imperial Courts,” in <i>Cloisonné: Chinese Enamels from the Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties,</i> (New York, New Haven, London: Bard Graduate Center and Yale University Press, 2011), 151–70. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[x] Zhang Rong, “Cloisonné for the Imperial Courts,” 159. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xi] Pierre Bourdieu, <i>Ibid.,</i> 176. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xii] Wen Zhenheng, from Craig Clunas, <i>Superfluous Things, </i>(Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 43. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xiii] Pierre Bourdieu, <i>Distinction,</i> 91. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xiv] Pierre Bourdieu, <i>Ibid.,</i> 34. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xv] Pierre Bourdieu, <i>Ibid.,</i> 73. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xvi] Norbert Elias, <i>The Civilizing Process, </i>(New York: Urizen Books, 1978), 16. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xvii] Norbert Elias, <i>Ibid.,</i> 21. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xviii] Benjamin A. Elman, “The Social Roles of Literati in Early to Mid-Ch’ing,” in <i>The Cambridge History of China,</i> Volume 9, Part 1: The Ch’ing Empire to 1800, edited by Willard J. Peterson, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 381-82. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xix] Pierre Bourdieu, <i>Distinction,</i> 483. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xx] Cary Y. Liu, “Archive of Power: The Qing Dynasty Imperial Garden-Palace at Rehe,” <i>Guoli Taiwan daxue meishushi yanjiu jikan</i> [Taida Journal of Art History] 28 (2010): 43–66. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xxi] Jonathan Hay, <i>Sensuous Surfaces, </i>(Honolulu, HI; London: University of Hawaiʻi Press : Reaktion Books, 2010), 37. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xxii] Alfred Gell, “The Technology of Enchantment and the Enchantment of Technology,” in <i>Anthropology, Art, and Aesthetics, </i>edited by Jeremy Coote and Anthony Shelton, (Oxford; New York: Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press, 1992), 47. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[xxiii] Alfred Gell, Ibid., 52. </span></span></span></div>
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-8407693815248172262016-07-26T09:49:00.000-07:002016-07-26T09:49:59.120-07:00Pilgrimage and the City: Studying English Cathedrals <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/simon-coleman.html" target="_blank">Simon Coleman</a>, <a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/tiina-sepp.html" target="_blank">Tiina Sepp</a> and <a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/marion-bowman.html" target="_blank">Marion Bowman</a> describe their ongoing collaboration on the "Pilgrimage and England’s Cathedrals" project. By exploring the links between space and different kinds of subjectivities, they propose 'cathedral consciousness' as a means to understanding the diverse functions of modern English cathedrals. </span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">MLA citation format:</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Coleman, Simon, Tiina Sepp and Marion Bowman</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"Pilgrimage and the City: Studying English Cathedrals"</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> b</span>log <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">p</span>ost<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">.</span> <i>Material Religions.</i> 27 July 2016. Web. [date of access]</span> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">What are cathedrals for? This is a question that we have been thinking about for a couple of years, as we collaborate on a project called “Pilgrimage and England’s Cathedrals, Past and Present.” [i] Our research explores English cathedrals as sites of pilgrimage but also as culturally, architecturally and socially significant locations within urban contexts. Three of the cathedrals we’re focusing on are both Anglican and ancient: Canterbury, Durham, and York. One is Roman Catholic and much more recent: Westminster Cathedral—a Victorian building whose construction in London between 1895 and 1903 boosted the public profile of Roman Catholicism in a country where it was still viewed with some suspicion by Protestant evangelicals. [ii] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/07/images/Fig2.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/07/images/Fig2.jpg" height="298" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fig. 1 Courtyard leading to entrance of Westminster Cathedral, London. (Photo: Marion Bowman)</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">One answer to our question comes from a distinguished sociologist of secularization, Steve Bruce, who published a book in 1996 called <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/religion-in-the-modern-world-9780198781516?cc=us&lang=en&" target="_blank">Religion in the Modern World: From Cathedrals to Cults.</a> The first chapter of the book includes a kind of sociological eulogy for what Bruce calls “the great Christian cathedrals of the Middle Ages,” [iii] which have now given way to a very different kind of faith. By definition, the cult does not dominate space as a cathedral does. It flourishes by catering to the diffuse sovereign consumerism of an individualizing society. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">But what are we to make of Bruce’s argument in relation to our project on cathedrals? Has our question already been answered? Let us juxtapose his view with the writing of another sociologist of contemporary religion, Grace Davie. In a recent piece, entitled “Thinking Spatially about Religion,” she notes that “in the 1970s these iconic buildings were frequently referred to as dinosaurs, large and useless.” [iv] What is striking, however, is that current evidence tells us that the constituencies for cathedrals are now growing rapidly, consisting of both regular and less regular worshippers, as well as “more transient communities of pilgrims and tourists.” Davie suggests that cathedrals appeal to the senses as much as to the intellect: they are “places that pay attention to aesthetics of worship, to music, to art, to liturgy, to worship”. In addition, she notes, they are “places where the individual can find space to reflect” in contexts of relative anonymity, thus avoiding the sometimes overly warm embrace of a parish church; and, finally, “these are places where…the nation… articulates its past.” </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Davie’s claims for the continued salience of cathedrals are backed up by the statistician Peter Brierley’s <a href="http://www.thearda.com/Archive/Files/Descriptions/ENGCC05.asp" target="_blank">2005 English Church Census</a>, which revealed a 21% rise in attendance at Anglican cathedral services between 2000 and 2004. [v] Furthermore, a 2012 report, significantly called ‘Spiritual Capital’, dangles a tempting sociological morsel in front of those who would see cathedrals as centres of Anglican revival, suggesting that “their impact on and significance for English life extends far beyond their role as tourist destinations.” [vi] Indeed, a frankly astonishing 27 per cent of the adult population of England visited an Anglican cathedral at least once in the year before the Report came out. [vii] This number adds up to around 11 million adults, covers the entire demographic spectrum, and includes Christians, non-Christians, and non-believers. What is more, many visitors say that their interest is not just about tourism and heritage, but also about getting in touch with the spiritual, however that is defined. [viii] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">It is under such circumstances that pilgrimage represents a fascinatingly problematic and yet fertile practice in relation to cathedrals. The religious buildings that we are studying are not remote shrines, where much of the pilgrim’s focus might simply be on the arduous and exceptional journey to get there; they are located in urban centres. Nor is pilgrimage necessarily the main rationale of each institution. Indeed, as a practice, it touches on many points of uncertainty for cathedrals and established Christianity in the UK: For instance are cathedrals as opposed to more isolated shrines the best places for pilgrimage? Where does worship end and heritage begin—not just metaphorically but materially—in spaces that house worship, tourism, art, musical performances, and university graduations? How public should a cathedral space be in the context of anonymous, urban spheres of interaction? And is gaining access to a cathedral a commercial or a spiritual transaction? </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/07/images/Fig1.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/07/images/Fig1.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fig. 2 Researchers’ table in the south transept of York Minster in July 2015. (Photo: Tiina Sepp)</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">One of things we find interesting about juxtapositions of such varied practices is that they are describing a deeply flexible kind of religious sociability and framing, one that—adapting the phenomenologist Alfred Schütz—inhabits the ambiguous social space between Nebenmenschen (contemporaries) and Mitmenschen (consociates), where Nebenmenschen are people “only known as types, that is, distantly, formally, and solely by their roles, whereas Mitmenschen are those known as specific and idiosyncratic individuals.” [ix] Or, as we see in much tourism literature, the presence of unknown others may be vital to one’s experience of place, in positive as well as negative terms; and cathedrals can accommodate both the romantic gaze of the isolated aesthete as well as the collective gaze of the day-tripper. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/07/images/Fig5.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/07/images/Fig5.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fig. 3 Entrance charges to Canterbury Cathedral, London. (Photo: Marion Bowman)</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The kinds of social, semiotic and spatial flexibility that we have been describing touch on, but do not really fit, two of the previously dominant theoretical models of pilgrimage that have been important in anthropology. The ambiguous space between contemporaries and consociates at cathedrals is scarcely covered by the Turnerian notion of communitas: [x] in the latter, identity is stripped away and levelled, as the temporarily formed fellowship of pilgrims pursues broadly common or at least commensurate goals. This notion, useful as it is, does not address the baroque multiplicity of goals and performance frames, let alone agendas, that emerge in cathedral spaces. Similarly, Eade and Sallnow’s notion of contesting the sacred can take us only so far, as it only points to one, predominantly agonistic, dimension of the forms of ritual and cultural articulation that may occur in pilgrimage, wherever the shrine is located, but most certainly in urban conurbations. [xi] We would add here that Ian Reader’s recent book on pilgrimage in the context of the market is extremely helpful in the way that it highlights the role of planning in pilgrimage, but again the central analytical metaphor is not quite flexible enough: it runs the risk of replacing sacrality with a notion of market relations as the ultimate “bottom line” of the organization of pilgrimages. [xii] The cathedrals we look at are not only in some ways deeply incoherent, they are also contexts where no single person knows what is going on in and around the numerous spatial and temporal frames of activity (though head vergers probably come the closest). There is no single bottom line, no single dimension of sociality or ritual. Indeed, as we are increasingly discovering, the rules and assumptions made by one cathedral may be very different from those evident in another. In this respect, at least, English cathedrals recall the medieval world rather than the streamlined rationality of the modern one, even as their staff are attempting to grasp what it means to be religious ‘professionals’ in a world where pilgrimage and tourism management often blend so seamlessly. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Modalities of Pilgrimage </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">So what kinds of pilgrimage-like activity take place in cathedrals? Rather than present an overview or a survey, we are simply going to explore some of the themes we have uncovered by introducing you briefly to two informants, both of whom were interviewed at Canterbury by Tiina in 2014. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<u><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Michael the Methodist: Adjacencies and Translations </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></u></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Michael is a middle aged family man whose Methodist home congregation was located around 30 kilometers away from the cathedral. He is well acquainted with Canterbury Cathedral as he goes there four or five times a year. Here’s what he said when Tiina asked him what he thought of the cathedral—what kind of space he thought it was: </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><i>It’s a combination. I think it’s certainly a working church. I have… friends in the diocese office here… and I know the work they do…For me it’s a spiritual place to come. ’Cause this is not my home church….I enjoy the spiritual presence that is here. I’m intrigued by pilgrimages, something in the back of my mind, that maybe in the future we may do more…. I suppose it’s also good as a religious tourist place because it brings people in…who wouldn’t come normally …I don’t see that as an important part for me….I think all faith we have and spirit has to transfer into work.</i> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Michael sees the cathedral as having many functions that co-exist, some of which he prioritizes over others, and one of the things we would emphasize here is how pilgrimage emerges in dialogue with other activities and spaces with which it is adjacent. Are Michael’s regular visits to the cathedral away from a congregation with a different theological emphasis classifiable as pilgrimages? There’s no simple answer to that question, but we know that the notion of pilgrimage is important to Michael’s conception of himself from what he says here and elsewhere. What’s also striking is Michael’s use of the notion of work as a kind of praxis that unites much of what goes on in the cathedral, but which seems to separates off tourism from more worshipful labours. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/07/images/Fig6.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/07/images/Fig6.jpg" height="301" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fig. 4 Tourists in Canterbury Cathedral, London. (Photo: Marion Bowman)</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">When Tiina asks Michael if he’s drawn to any particular part of the cathedral, he is ready with a response: </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">I think there’s this… the little prayer chapel… the Martyrdom chapel. Because as you walk by, it’s quite dark in a sense but alight inside… so it’s quiet and because there’s a sign saying it’s reserved for prayer, people tend to respect that and they don’t come in talking. So for me… I can go there and I can be silent in it. And that’s a place that drew me. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></i></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">This expresses a trope that we have often come across so far: the cathedral being capacious enough to house not only large numbers of people, but also spaces of temporary retreat and silence, involving awareness of, but distance from, others, who may be contemporaries or consociates in Schütz’s terms. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Clearly we see a kind of ‘cathedral consciousness’ emerging in this interview, related to Michael’s separation from everyday life and his home congregation and his journey to a large-scale, multi-dimensional liturgical space. This sense is reinforced as Michael’s interview then ventures away from Canterbury itself, and presents an array of linked cathedral experiences that covers his biography as well as his experience of Britain as place of both indigenous and personal history and powerful landscape. We can only hint at the complexity of what I think he is saying here, as he weaves together walking in the wilderness, Holy Island in the North East of the country, St David’s cathedral in Wales, and finally York Minster—the latter located near to Michael’s birthplace and, as he puts it, “the one that really centres me”. But it is St David’s that contributes to a radical change in his life:</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Yes, I was on holiday and something was happening in my life to change and serve and God gave me a message from Matthew 25, about the lambs and the goats … to serve him and I’d been to the cathedral and sat on the cliff top and looking at the most spectacular view you can imagine on a quiet day…and God giving that message. “Think of what I’ve given you, Michael, haven’t you been blessed? I want everyone to have the blessings, and I want you now to be a messenger of these blessings…” And I left my job in London. I sold the house…I don’t look at the architecture that much now or the stained glass windows… I sense that those hundreds of thousands of prayers... and it calms me down and it centres me…. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></i></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Is this describing a pilgrimage? Yes and no—it takes place in and adjacent to the cathedral, on a holiday that turns into a holy-day. Is this a Protestant testimony? Again, yes and no: it is given in an interview but it contains the classic themes of conversion, of biblical text combined with God’s direct voice. And what is the cathedral doing here? It seems to be a medium for a shift in both subjectivity and work; and if so, it is an effective medium because its materiality is not all-encompassing: Michael goes to the cathedral but then sits on the cliff; and, most strikingly, there is the image of stained glass windows being converted, translated, into words, into thousands of prayers. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<u><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Yvonne the Cleric: A Journey Through the Building</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></u><i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></i></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Michael found his inspiration through his negotiated relationship with cathedrals, finding spaces to be on his own as well as engaging in journeys whose power may have come from the fact that it is difficult, and possibly futile, to decide whether they “were” or “were not” pilgrimages. After looking at his responses we then found a very different interview in our Canterbury files. Yvonne is a cleric, a religious professional, a person working with pilgrimage groups who come to Canterbury. In the first part of her interview she talks of the gradual emergence of a set of strategies to organize pilgrims, and then she talks fascinatingly about the experience of leading pilgrims through the cathedral space. Again, we can only hint at some of what she says, but here are some of her reflections on leading a candlelit pilgrimage: </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">I try as we go round, I say: if you’ve clearly made Christian profession of faith, you might like to think about this. If you haven’t, you might like to think about something which is I guess [is] less Christian language but may actually end up being the same thing, really. So we start at the back and then we literally journey…. And so…before I took a group round on my own I spent some time thinking: How does the building speak of a Christian journey of faith? How can I use the building in different places to make myself a route? </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></i></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">As with Michael we see here a link between space and subjectivity, but also the strategies of somebody who, unlike him, cannot dismiss the tourist as not engaging in the proper spiritual labour of praying within the cathedral. The route that Yvonne then describes is not only one that seems meaningful to her—as she remarks elsewhere she allows spirituality to prevail a little over historical detail—but also one that uses each part of the fabric of the building to make a different point: the Nave prompts talk of the almightiness of God, the arches are presented as marking one space from another and so give a sense of being in sacred space, and so on. The shrine of Becket is part of this route but only one part of a wider journey—and one that in the cathedral tour does not stop with him as historical figure but reflects instead on the hope of resurrection. This is an ambulatory ritual designed for people of faith but also those of no faith, but in any case it seems a well-considered attempt to shift from the vagaries of the journey to a precisely directed movement through architectural, historical and theological space at the same time. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/07/images/Fig3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/07/images/Fig3.jpg" height="298" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fig. 5 The north-west transept (also known as the Martyrdom) of Canterbury Cathedral. On the left, the Chapel of Our Lady Martyrdom. On the right, exit to the Undercroft. In the centre, the Altar of the Sword-Point, commemorating St Thomas Becket’s death. (Photo: Tiina Sepp)</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">One kind of space that these narratives suggest is indeed the classic one of the <i>liminal</i>, as we see how cathedrals provide opportunities for removal from the mundane world: as Michael periodically moves from his home congregation, or as Yvonne takes believer and non-believer alike on candlelit journeys through a cathedral space that has been emptied of other people. But there is also evidence of what one of us, Simon, has elsewhere called laterality: the creative construction of liturgical or at least symbolically charged behavior parallel to but at one remove from official tours and official spaces, [xiii] such as Michael’s use of the Martyrdom chapel, both rooted in the cathedral space and crucially reaching beyond it. Michael draws himself to the side of the actions of others, creating his own frame of ritual practice that again is adjacent to, possibly even echoes, those of others, but is still separated from them. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Our brief comments and examples have been emphasizing the continued religious salience of cathedrals as places of pilgrimage, but have also been blurring theological and theoretical edges and worrying at sharp boundaries: presenting the city cathedral as urban and liturgical space at one and the same time and the pilgrimage as both strategy and improvisation, both following and straying from well-worn paths. We want to finish with a final blurring of the boundaries, and it relates to our project itself. Where are we as researchers located in the capacious liturgical, bureaucratic, and socially flexible spaces provided by cathedrals? We are of course both observers of cathedral strategy and inevitably part of it. In reporting what we observe to such sophisticated caretakers of sacred buildings, we become research objects and subjects ourselves, providing further means through which cathedrals can identify new spaces of action in the twenty-first century. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Notes </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">i. For details of the project, go to <a href="http://www.pilgrimageandcathedrals.ac.uk/">http://www.pilgrimageandcathedrals.ac.uk/</a> Researchers on the AHRC-funded project are Dee Dyas (PI), Tiina Sepp (Researcher), John Jenkins (Researcher) (all York University), Marion Bowman (Co-PI, Open-University), and Simon Coleman (Co-PI, University of Toronto). Note that all interviewees’ names are pseudonyms.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">ii. Canterbury Cathedral was the leading pilgrimage centre in medieval England and large areas of the building were shaped by and still show the influence of the cult of St Thomas Becket. Durham Cathedral contains the shrines and remains of St Cuthbert and Bede, and Cuthbert holds a unique place as a symbol of the region. York Minster contains the tombs of two archbishop martyr ‘saints’, William FitzHerbert, nephew of King Stephen, who was murdered in 1154; and Richard Scrope, executed for treason in 1405. Westminster Cathedral has the shrine and relics of the seventeenth century English martyr, St John Southworth. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">iii. Steve Bruce, <i>Religion in the Modern World: From Cathedrals to Cults</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">iv. For this and other quotes in this paragraph, see Grace Davie, “Thinking Spatially about Religion,” <i>Culture and Religion</i> 13, no. 4(2012): 486. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">v. See <a href="http://www.thearda.com/Archive/Files/Descriptions/ENGCC05.asp">http://www.thearda.com/Archive/Files/Descriptions/ENGCC05.asp</a> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">vi. See <a href="http://www.theosthinktank.co.uk/publications/2012/10/12/spiritual-capital-the-present-and-future-of-english-cathedrals">http://www.theosthinktank.co.uk/publications/2012/10/12/spiritual-capital-the-present-and-future-of-english-cathedrals</a>, p. 10. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">vii. Ibid.: 15. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">viii. Mathew Guest, Elizabeth Olson and John Wolffe, “Christianity: Loss of Monopoly,” in <i>Religion and Change in Modern Britain</i>, eds. Linda Woodhead and Rebecca Catto (London, Routledge, 2012), 57-78. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">ix. Michael Carrithers, “Anthropology as a Moral Science of Possibilities,” <i>Current Anthropology</i> 46, no. 3 (2005): 433-456. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">x. Victor Turner and Edith Turner, <i>Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture: Anthropological Perspectives</i> (New York, Columbia University Press, 1978). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">xi. John Eade and Michael Sallnow eds, <i>Contesting the Sacred: The Anthropology of Christian Pilgrimage</i> (London: Routledge, 1991). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">xii. Ian Reader, <i>Pilgrimage in the Marketplace </i>(London, Routledge, 2014). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">xiii. Simon Coleman, “Ritual Remains: Studying Contemporary Pilgrimage,” in Michael Lambek and Janice Boddy eds, <i>A Companion to the Anthropology of Religion</i> (Oxford, Blackwell, 2014), 294-308; also Simon Coleman, “Pilgrimage as Trope for an Anthropology of Christianity,” <i>Current Anthropology </i>55, suppl. 10 (2014): 281-291.
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-84612305278886278632016-06-28T22:12:00.000-07:002016-06-28T22:18:05.511-07:00On Blood and Words: How Certain Objects Become Subjects Among the Mande (West Africa)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/agnes-kedzierska-manzon.html" target="_blank">Agnès Kedzierska Manzon</a> explores how Mande ritual specialists in West Africa, who own and manipulate power-objects called <i>basiw,</i> turn these objects into "gods forever in the process of construction" thanks to blood sacrifices and speech. While doing so, they construct at once these object's agency and their own identities as accomplished, powerful and respected individuals.</span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">MLA citation format:</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Manzon, Agnès Kedzierska</span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"On Blood and Words: How Certain Objects Become Subjects Among the Mande (West Africa)"</span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">b</span>log <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">p</span>ost<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">.</span> <i>Material Religions</i><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><i>.</i> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">29</span> June 2016. Web. [date of access]</span> </span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Among the Mande (Mali, Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire) the usage of a wide range of material artifacts manipulated on a regular basis to influence human life and destiny is well established. Such artifacts include, on the one hand, Arabic talismans or amulets (the Mande have been Islamized since the fourteenth century CE), and on the other hand, non-Islamic, primarily plant-based amalgams that are designated in Mande languages as <i>boliw</i> or <i>basiw</i> (singular: <i>boli</i> or <i>basi</i>). They may be of various sizes and shapes: round, oval, horns filled with substances, assemblages of separate elements such as shells, wooden statues, cola nuts, etc. (cf. Bazin 2008, Brett-Smith 1983, Colleyn 2001, 2009, 2010). Portable and pocket-size or stationary and as big as a table, they are entirely coated with many layers of coagulated blood. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">As with similar artifacts used elsewhere in Africa—for example Congolese “nail fetishes” (<i>nkisi nkondi</i>), Baule “spouse figurines” (<i>blolo bian/bla</i>), or Evhe and Fon <i>vodun</i>, to name only a few—they are addressed through sacrifices and with words, asked for protection and for help in difficulties. Their “users” or “masters” (<i>tigiw</i>) seem to conceive of them as a very special category of not entirely sentient yet autonomous entities, endowed with agency. As I have demonstrated elsewhere (Kedzierska-Manzon 2013), they treat these <i>objects as subjects</i> with which one may enter into a genuine partnership. They engage with them in an ambiguous relationship that has an impact on their sexuality and affective life and that is locally conceptualized as an alliance between human and non-human lovers (Kedzierska-Manzon 2015). </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">This relationship is instituted and perpetuated through the ritual practice consisting in sacrifices of cola nuts to begin and then poultry as well as, more rarely, cattle or sheep. The sacrifices – locally designated by the term <i>sɔnni:</i> literally, watering – are accompanied, preceded, and followed by speech. Both the words uttered in the direction of <i>basiw,</i> and the sacrificial blood poured onto them, are essential in the process of their construction, defining their identity and their potential for acting. </span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/06/manzon/images/Image2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/06/manzon/images/Image2.jpg" height="240" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Image <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">1</span>: Continuous construction of the <i>basiw</i> through blood sacrifices. Photo by author. </span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The blood constitutes more precisely the <i>basiw’s</i> "flesh", making their appearance amorphous and their surface uneven. This surface which stinks and attracts flies indexes their proper relationships with humans as well as their power. Without being “watered” regularly, they lose this power or worse, may turn what remains of it against their human partners. Why is it so? Drawing on the work of Martin Holbraad (2007, 2011), I would argue that their material aspects matter deeply for an understanding of the way humans think and feel about them. Holbraad shows, more precisely, in his study of Cuban divination rituals that if the Cuban divinities are said to appear as marks on the divination sand – as the displacement of powder in short – then, these divinities must locally be conceived in terms of motions or paths, highly ephemeral and virtual to some extent. They are not seen as stable entities inhabiting some far-away or transcendent locations but rather as potentialities realizing themselves only temporarily. Let’s now return to the <i>basiw</i>. The flow and the coagulation of blood are usually associated among the Mande, as elsewhere, with organic processes such as childbirth but also gestation (cf. Dieterlen and Dettwyler 1988). The fetus’ development in the uterus implies and relies on such a flow, as does the <i>basiw</i>. These artifacts may be seen as “loci of growth" (Ingold 2012) where as mounds or termite nests they are inherently unfinished and open-ended. This is why they must be watered. If one waters them, then, they may grow, as do the plants. The sacrifices are ways of cultivating them. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The materiality of </span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><i>basiw</i></span></span> informs us on the way they and their relation to humans are locally comprehended, in constant transformation. They are things rather than objects, if one were to apply to them the classic Heideggerian dichotomy, and to use the expression coined by David Graeber (2005), “gods in the process of construction”, never fully achieved, always in becoming. Through their continuous production, their partners seek new arrangements, establish new alliances, and perpetuate (social) life. By owning and watering them, their owners inscribe themselves into a larger, supra-regional network of relationships including humans and non-humans, thanks to which they may gain wealth and prestige, have access to secret knowledge and become powerful. Thus, the <i>basiw</i> seem to function as the “loci of growth” in a double sense: they grow physically and, while doing so, they make their masters grow economically and socially, helping them to become </span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">respected and fully accomplished personae. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">This mutual process of subjectivation of things and humans involved in the relationship relies, as I have demonstrated in detail in Kedzierska-Manzon 2016, on blood sacrifices, but also, as I will argue now, on the speech uttered within the ritual context. Such a speech situates each <i>basi</i> within the larger network, in respect to other similar artifacts and in relation to their “users” or “masters”, as well as these masters’ masters, apprentices and clients. Through speech, these artifacts are ascribed certain qualities and represented as potent, which in fact empowers them. At the same time, they are assigned to the position of interlocutors for humans, capable of listening, seeing and reacting. </span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">In order to provoke them to act on behalf of their allies, </span></span>the words addressed to them are supposed to please them or even to enchant them while sometimes challenging them. The “enchantment” under question is thought to be achieved mainly thanks to their speech formal characteristics which include particular lexical choices driven by the phonetics as much as by the semantics, syntax parallelism, frequent use of neologisms as well as of the onomatopoeias, a certain a-grammaticality, all of which result in a partial unintelligibility. All of these characteristics, common to the various types of religious languages employed elsewhere (cf. Keane 1997), are supposed to contribute to the emotional destabilization of the addressee which in turn, provokes this addressee to act. Indeed, the <i>basiw</i>, in response to the speech uttered to them, are expected first to provide the elements of an answer to the question asked through the position of the colas nuts and the sacrificial victim on the ground. Then, they are expected to react by accomplishing what they were asked for. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/06/manzon/images/Image3.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/06/manzon/images/Image3.jpg" height="400" width="300" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Image <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">2</span>: Speaking to the <i>basiw,</i> engaging in dialogue. Photo by author.</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">In order to make sure that they will engage in action and in dialogue with humans, an adoption of a special way of speaking seems necessary. Together with blood sacrifice, speech participates in the emergence of the ritual landscape – visual, sound, olfactory, etc. – within which these artifacts assume the role of agents. Their perpetual creation from words and blood, linking past to the present, bush to the village, visible to the invisible, and last but not least, humans to their fellow humans, shape the Mande world in which people as well animals, plants, powerful things and some invisible entities dwell. </span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/06/manzon/images/Image1.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/06/manzon/images/Image1.jpg" height="200" width="179" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Image <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">3</span>: With Diakaridia, the hunter, Mande Montains, Mali. Photo courtesy of the author.</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><b>References </b></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Bazin, J., 2008, <i>Des clous dans la Joconde, </i>Toulouse, Anacharsis. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Brett-Smith, S. 1983, "The Poisonous Child", <i>Res: anthropology and aesthetics, </i>6, pp. 47–64. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Colleyn, J.P. 2001, <i>Bamana : the Art of Existence in Mali,</i> (co-ed. Arnoldi, M.J.), New York, Museum for African Art; Zurich, Museum Rietberg ; Gent, Snoek-Ducaju & Zoon. <br />
_____2009, "Images, signes, fétiches : à propos de l’art bamana (Mali)", <i>Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines,</i> 195, pp. 733-745. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">_____2010, "Il Feticcio, O Un Oggetto Paradossale / The Fetish, a Paradoxal Object", in : Bargna, Ivan ; Parodi da Passano (ed.), <i>L’Africa delle Meravigle. Arti Africane nelle collezioni italane / The Wonders of Africa. African arts in Italian Collections,</i> Milano, Silvana Editoriale, pp. 133-145. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Dettwyler, K. 1988, "More than Nutrition: Breastfeeding in Urban Mali", <i>Medical Anthropology Quarterly,</i> 2-2, pp. 172-183. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Dieterlen, G. 1988 [1951], <i>Essais sur la religion bambara,</i> Bruxelles, Ed. De l’Université de Bruxelles. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Graeber, D., 2005, "Fetishism as Social Creativity: or, Fetishes as Gods in the process of Construction", <i>Anthropological Theory,</i> 5: 407–438 </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Holbraad, M., 2007, "The Powder of Power: Multiplicity and Motion in the Divinatory Cosmology of Cuban Ifa (or Mana again)", in: <i>Thinking Through Things: Theorizing Artefacts Ethnographically,</i> London, Routledge, pp. 189-225. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">_____2011, “Can the Thing Speak?” Open Anthropology Cooperative Press, Working Papers Series # 7, ISSN 2045-5763. Accessed from <a href="http://openanthcoop.net/press/http:/openanthcoop.net/press/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Holbraad-Can-the-Thing-Speak2.pdf">http://openanthcoop.net/press/http:/openanthcoop.net/press/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Holbraad-Can-the-Thing-Speak2.pdf</a> on April 2016. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Ingold, T., 2012, “The Shape of the Land”, in: Arnason, A;, Elllison, N., Vergunst, J, & Whitehouse, A., ed., <i>Landscape beyond Land,</i> New York, Oxford, Berghahn Books, pp. 197-205. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Keane, W., 1997, "Religious Language", <i>Annual Review of Anthropology,</i> 26: 47-71. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Kedzierska-Manzon, A., 2016, "Le sacrifice comme mode de construction: du sang versé sur les fétiches (mandingues)", <i>Archives des Sciences Sociales des Religions, </i>special issue "La forces des objets- matières à expériences", 174, forthcoming. <br />
_____2015,"Corps et objet forts: le ‘fétichisme’ comme ascèse", <i>Corps–revue interdisciplinaire,</i> 12, éd. CNRS, pp. 211-219. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">_____2013, "Humans and Things: Mande 'Fetishes' as Subjects", <i>Anthropological Quarterly,</i> 86 (1), pp. 1115-1152.
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-57926837355207033862016-05-31T14:10:00.000-07:002019-08-13T19:55:12.811-07:00Religion and ‘Radiation Culture’: Spirituality in a Post-Chernobyl World<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/elena-romashko.html" target="_blank">Elena Romashko</a> analyzes how atomic power may be interpreted through the lens of spirituality<i> </i>and mythology as a cultural response. By focusing on the Chernobyl explosion in 1986, she proposes the idea of a ‘radiation culture' where nuclear radiation has evolved from a purely scientific concept, first observed in the controlled environment of the lab, to a culture with its vivid beliefs and folklore.</span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">MLA citation format:</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Romashko, Elena</span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"Religion and ‘Radiation Culture’: Spirituality in a Post-Chernobyl World"</span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">b</span>log <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">p</span>ost<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">.</span> <i>Material Religions</i><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><i>.</i> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">1</span> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">June</span> 2016. Web. [date of access]</span> </span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><i>"Atomic energy, just as scavengers, feeds on decay products." </i></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><i>V. Birashevich.</i> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image1.jpg" height="400" width="378" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 1<span style="font-family: serif;">.</span> Chernobyl radiation map 1996. CC BY-SA 2.5 via <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AChernobyl_radiation_map_1996.svg" target="_blank">Wikimedia Commons.</a></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><b>Introduction</b> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">This year, 2016, marks the 30th anniversary of the Chernobyl explosion. On 26 April 1986, explosions ruptured the reactor at the Chernobyl Power Plant. They released into the environment and set on fire numerous types of radioactive materials, especially iodine and caesium radionuclides. Deemed an ‘accident’, this massive nuclear disaster on the border of the Ukrainian and Belarusian Soviet Republics in 1986 permanently changed the lives of the residents in these areas. Simultaneously, this event changed our conception of nuclear risks and the effects of radiation all around the globe. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">For Belarusian people, the consequences of the explosion were devastating: contamination of about 23% of the territory [1], evacuation and relocation of at least 338,000 people [2], the loss of those who died from high-dose radiation exposure and the struggle of those who are still coping with a range of health issues. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image2.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 2. Checkpoint "Dityatki", entrance to the Chernobyl Zone of Exclusion. CC BY-SA 3.0 via <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ACheckpoint_ditkatky_chernobyl_zone.JPG" target="_blank">Wikimedia Commons.</a>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">In 2013, the population of the ‘contaminated’ territory numbered 1,142,600 people (12.1% of the entire population of Belarus) [3]. Thus, for 30 years in Belarus, people lived on the contaminated areas with various levels of radioactivity. Occasionally <a href="http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2006/04/inside-chernobyl/audio-interactive" target="_blank">National Geographic</a> would publish a couple of <a href="http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/10/nuclear-tourism/ludwig-photography#/01-pripyat-ukraine-posed-dolls-670.jpg" target="_blank">photographs by Gerd Ludwig</a> from the Zone or a group of scientists or government officials would administer scientific tests and collect soil samples and track animal populations. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">So called ‘self-settlers’, people who decided to come back to the Exclusion Zone, attract some international attention with their fatalism and alternative life choices, as shown through the public interest in the recent documentary <a href="http://thebabushkasofchernobyl.com/" target="_blank">“The Babushkas of Chernobyl”</a> by Holly Morris and Anne Bogart. In a sense, their lives were consigned to the category of ‘survivors of contamination’. The impact of constant low-dose contamination on the 23% of Belarusian territory is still a matter of discussion and the danger of living in the Zone is practically indisputable and frightening for the public. In contrary to the self-settlers, people living in the rest of contaminated Belarus, do not attract much of the attention, their culture and daily life was seldom in the media spotlight. Their ways of coping with changes caused by the Chernobyl explosion, and the alternate, spiritual dimension of their perceptions of the disaster are virtually unknown and certainly never factored into debates on nuclear risks. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Conditions of life in post-Chernobyl Belarus may seem to be a local issue, with little connection to the rest of the world. Anthropologist Sarah D. Phillips emphasizes that the Chernobyl disaster has often been depicted through the political realm, whereby Chernobyl was a political failure, a “quintessentially “Soviet” phenomenon” and a result of the insufficiency of the Soviet system of government. She writes: “The world got comfortable with the assumption that the Chernobyl catastrophe was the product of a specific place, time, and flawed system — a terrible exception that could not happen anywhere else” [4]. However, it would be a mistake to underestimate the global reach of nuclear accidents with 99 unintentional technological nuclear accidents having occurred worldwide between 1952 and 2009, a number of those related to nuclear weapon testing and use. [5] Media Studies scholar Nicky Falkof calls this problematic abridgment of radiation to the exclusively Soviet space “a cultural attempt to nullify the fear of nuclear power by laying the blame for the tragedy at the feet of the enemy’s failings rather than implicating technology<span style="font-size: small;">...</span>” [6]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Simultaneously, nuclear fallouts and their harmful consequences have made radiation hazards a universally discussed phenomenon. There was the gradual realisation even among civilians that no place on earth is truly safe from radioactive contamination. In the process, radiation has evolved from a purely scientific concept, first observed in the controlled environment of the lab, to a culture with its vivid mythology and folklore. As Dr. Falkof summarises “Chernobyl was both a social and environmental catastrophe and a potent moment of myth, a tragedy that lent itself almost immediately to metaphor. Stuck in a half-life of its own between Cold War politicking, environmental crisis, technological failure, human calamity and science fiction nightmare, Chernobyl has recurred repeatedly in different forms in global cultural memory...” [7]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">I will focus on one aspect of this radiation culture and demonstrate, how atomic power and radiation may be interpreted through the lens of spirituality. In doing so, I hope to highlight the people who live in post-Chernobyl Belarus and their interpretations of the disaster and coping strategies. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">How to Research an Invisible War? </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">In the book <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voices_from_Chernobyl" target="_blank">“Voices from Chernobyl”</a>, Svetlana Alexievich, recent winner of the Nobel Prize in literature, brings together oral history of the disaster through interviews with surviving ‘liquidators’ [i] their loved ones and family members of their deceased colleagues. To visualize the post-Chernobyl situation in the preface to the book, the translator Keith Gessen compares the Chernobyl explosion with the tragedy of September 11, 2001 in New York City. She claims that both these events have become signs of national grief, but evoked different public attitudes and senses of time [8]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Gessen vividly describes the tragedy of September 11, where mass media showed how within minutes victims died under the debris of the collapsing twin towers. There were only a few survivors. The opposite dynamic accompanied Chernobyl since radiation is an invisible killer that works over time. Only one plant worker died immediately and fewer than 30 died in the next few weeks. The tragedy was surrounded by silence in media and denial from the authorities. However, tens of thousands of people received extremely high doses of radiation afterward, and 29 years later people continue living in the areas with abnormal radiation levels that affect their health and everyday life in various ways [ii]. [9] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">This comparison shows how difficult it is to research the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster, as it seems impossible (whether for medical doctors or folklorists) to separate what was a direct consequence of the disaster from what formed during the same time frame or could be related to this specific region. Sometimes this methodological problem becomes an absurdity when medical doctors blame higher mortality or higher cancer rates on “other major confounding factors” due to “elevated rates of smoking or alcohol consumption, that may occur in persons who know they were exposed to radiation” [10], psycho-somatic harm or even a tendency to over-diagnose the population from the contaminated areas. Ethnolinguists and ethnographers working in the post-Chernobyl situation in Belarus face similar difficulties as doctors. The former are trying to distinguish between new cultural and ‘folk’ phenomena (rituals, tales, practices or beliefs) that appeared in a situation of long lasting crisis, and the older ones that predated the explosion. Researchers seek answers in the daily lives of people who do not perceive themselves as victims, or have simply forgotten about the hazards emitting from their houses, water, food and everyday objects. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">It seems that the key to understanding post-Chernobyl life is in refusing to analyze the Chernobyl disaster as a tragedy of minutes because it is in principle a different type of disaster, dissimilar to natural calamities or terrorist attacks. Chernobyl is more like an invisible war, where the actual battles are far away from the people. They continue living their everyday life in the changed surroundings for so long that they do not notice the war. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">People who write about Chernobyl as well as those who live in the contaminated territories are stuck between the opposing poles of oblivion and ‘radiophobia’. Researchers have to collect the evidence from people with very different attitudes to the disaster. While the majority firmly negates any influence of Chernobyl on their lives or beliefs, there are people who show increased fear of radiation and awareness in the origin of local foods and contamination of the regions. It became quite common to blame radiation for health conditions and diseases whose origin or reason cannot be explained by official medicine. This gap in scientific knowledge about the influence of radiation exposure on the human body and reticence of the Soviet and current media about the general magnitude and consequences of the disaster, and threatening images of the sci-fi take on radiation danger caused the anxiety and fear which are often called ‘radiophobia’ or ‘syndrome of radiophobia’. This was introduced in 1987 as a “possibly greater threat, than radiation exposure itself.” [11] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Radiophobia became a controversial term: on the one hand, it aimed to describe the situation of stress and explained a number of psycho-somatic disorders. On the other hand, it became a powerful governmental tool to avoid expensive medical assistance and reduce benefit payments. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Medical anthropologist and leading specialist in post-Chernobyl health care system, Adriana Petryna, mentions a statement issued by the Soviet Health Ministry, that “directed medical examiners in the Zone of Exclusion to "classify workers who have received a maximum dose as having "vegetovascular dystonia," that is, a kind of panic disorder, and a novel psychosocial disorder called "radiophobia" (or the fear of the biological influence of radiation). These categories were used to filter out the majority of disability claims.” [12] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Discussion about which medical conditions could be regarded a consequence of the Chernobyl explosion indicated one more public attitude to the disaster. Some people, it was thought, see their participation in the clean-up operations after the explosion or suffering from the health conditions, often linked with the Chernobyl influence, as a ground to claim financial compensation, social benefits, public respect and attention from the state. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">“The indeterminacy of scientific knowledge about the afflictions people face and about the nature of nuclear catastrophe materializes here as both a curse and a source of leverage” – states Petryna, based on her research conducted in Ukraine in the 90s - “ambiguities related to the interpretation of radiation-related injury, together with their inextricable relations to the social and political uncertainties generated by Soviet interventions and current political-economic vulnerability, make the scope of the afflicted population in Ukraine and its claims to injury at once plausible, ironic, and catastrophic”. [13] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">All these categories of people occasionally resort to the religious elements, parallels or sources to elaborate or to push forward their views. The religious component can be expressed in a number of ways: through the promulgation of the religious icons of Chernobyl by Chernobyl NGOs, apocalyptic narratives by locals to describe the scope of the Chernobyl disaster, and attempts to depict Chernobyl as an apocalyptic omen or fear of radiation as an unbeatable demonic power. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Radiation, when seen as an invisible, deceptive enemy with transcendental or godlike abilities and qualities often provokes overwhelming dread. Therefore, objective scientific thinking has not always been the most prevalent or popular way to comprehend the essence and consequences of post-Chernobyl radiation. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">I am convinced that the mainstream attempt to depict the post-Chernobyl situation in exclusively political and scientific terms does not indicate the lack of a religious dimension in dealing with the effects of radiation. On the contrary, it reveals a lack of methodological tools, a tendency to underestimate the religious factor and complexity of data collection due to the intimacy of spiritual beliefs. My decision to conduct my research mostly in 2015 in the urban settings of Belarus was connected with my interest in interviewing a wider range of people. My interviews in Minsk, the capital of Belarus, made accessible to me people who always lived in the relatively ‘clean’ area far from radiation capital and those who moved to Minsk for the better environment, availability of medical help and higher living standards. Moreover, the urban population is more exposed to information about radiation threats and new emerging groups searching for healthier lifestyles, for instance, eco-living, vegan and locally sourced foods, etc. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">In the beginning of my fieldwork, I encountered a mostly sceptical attitude to my search for the religious elements in the perceptions of Chernobyl. The majority of my interviewees started with the agreement that there isn’t or wasn’t a religious dimension to Chernobyl. Scientists from <a href="http://www.belrad-institute.org/" target="_blank">“The <span style="color: #444444;">I</span>nstitute of Radiation Safety”</a> BELRAD [iii] clearly stated that people never mention any religious aspects of the disaster and, even in remote places, have a very “scientific view” of radiation and its impact. People were convinced that the impact of the Chernobyl explosion on their daily nourishment is insignificant. Instead, they were more concerned with avoiding genetically modified foods and much more scared of unintentional purchases of genetically modified products than of ones containing an abnormal level of radiation. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">I started to see post-Chernobyl radiation as an integral, implicit part of people’s lives and environment and noticed how difficult it was for them to immediately articulate what they thought about it. However, after a few months, I heard ideas that seemed religious, even though interviewees often would not deem them as religious due to the legacy of Soviet propaganda of scientific atheism and the common perception of ‘religion’ as official Church teaching. People would rather describe them as superstitious, or locate in the sphere of traditional or folk beliefs. I will highlight some of the ideas about location, time, local history, flora and fauna, in brief, a new cosmology and ecology of Chernobyl. I hope to show that these religious ideas appealed to long-playing utopian and apocalyptic allusions and became incessant leitmotifs in artistic perceptions of Chernobyl, Russian Orthodox iconography, people’s narratives and vernacular belief. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<br />
<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">A Culture of Radiation: From the ‘Peaceful Atom’ to ‘Radiophobia’</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">During a trip to Minsk, the capital of Belarus, claimed to be free of radiation contamination, I interview Alexander and Iryna, both engineers who were much more excited to talk about Soviet industrial plans and perspectives, than about Chernobyl consequences to their current daily life. They think that Chernobyl did not influence their lives as much as others; they were in Moscow when the disaster happened and their daughter was not yet born. When I ask Iryna in general about the Soviet electrification program as a precursor to nuclear plants she looks surprised and tries to find her old history schoolbooks. “Electrification?” she says, “Yes, electrification was important. We were raised on the phrase of Lenin, that ‘Communism is Soviet power plus the electrification of the whole country’ [iv] [14]. They explained to us that the new communist regime will survive only if it will be self-sufficient, and electrification and independent industry was key to it. Hydroelectric power stations were not producing enough, so, I suppose, they started to expand the atomic industry. However, I don’t think I ever heard about the Chernobyl power plant before the disaster, I don’t even think that I knew its name before.” [15] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image3.jpg" height="400" width="280" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 3. The cover of the magazine “We Build” (1929). <a href="http://www.wondersandmarvels.com/2015/03/lenins-lamps-2.html" target="_blank">Source.</a></span></span></td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image4.jpg" height="282" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 4. Soviet poster “Electrification and Counterrevolution” (1921)<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">.</span></span> <a href="http://www.wondersandmarvels.com/2015/03/lenins-lamps-2.html" target="_blank">Source.</a>
“Bolshevik propaganda argued that electricity would defeat capitalism, religion, hierarchy and exploitation. In the 1923 poster “Electrification and Counter-revolution” an enormous hand holds up one of Lenin’s lamps, and a group of stereotypical counterrevolutionaries representing the evils of the class system try to extinguish its light.” [16]
</span></span></td></tr>
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<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">“They were telling us that there was no electricity before Lenin. You know, we all called the light bulb ‘Ilyich’s lamp’.”</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"> Alexander tells me sarcastically. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[v] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>[17]</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> “I grew up in western Belarus, so we did not actually have much propaganda for the benefits of nuclear energy. As far as I know, there were no faculties to study atomic science in Belarus, we did not know much about it before Chernobyl. My best friend, the godfather of my daughter, was a liquidator. He could not stay here after all of that, he immigrated to Israel.” His wife adds to this story: “The wife of this friend was a doctor, so she understood the risks and she was Jewish – so they had a chance to leave. Then for the first time I realized that in the Soviet system we are restrained to one place, no matter how educated and professional we are, we cannot leave to the safer place. I was scared and kept on thinking: “Why she can leave and save her child from this, and I cannot”. I would do everything to save my child, but I felt imprisoned. I started to reassure myself that I haven’t even been pregnant yet when Chernobyl happened, so I hoped that my child will not suffer from the related health issues; doctors were saying that the child will adapt to the new environment it is born to.” </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image5.jpg" height="236" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 5. Iryna and Alexander in 1986. Photo from their family album.</span></span> </td></tr>
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<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">They both look very optimistic now; memories about the disaster do not make them look gloomy. Perhaps, it is because Chernobyl helped them to realize a lot about the country they live in and their plans for life and future of their child. From their stories it is clear that the process of industrialization and electrification were very influential on people’s minds. Iryna remembers ‘funny names’ which contained the abbreviated word ‘electrification’ in them [vi], however, she admits that was “before her time”. As a former chemical engineer married to Alexander, a former electro-chemist, she is excited to tell me about the image of Soviet scientist. She says that in the 1960s it became popular to admire physicists [vii]. “Did you watch a movie <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Days_in_One_Year" target="_blank">‘Nine Days in One Year’</a>? It was made in the 60s, I liked it a lot. It is about atomic physicists. Those scientists, they are shown as heroes of that time – they are the most brave, the most honest and noble men. They show how they risk and harm their health, consciously, to ‘subdue the atom’. For sure it was popularization. They wanted a positive, public view of the atomic industry”. [18] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image6.jpg" height="320" width="250" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 6. Coat of Arms Pripyat. CC BY-SA 3.0, via <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_Pripyat.png" target="_blank">Wikimedia Commons.</a></span></span></td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image7.jpg" height="212" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 7. Pripyat Panorama, 2011. By Bkv7601 (Own work) CC BY 3.0, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pripyat_Panorama.JPG" target="_blank">via Wikimedia Commons.</a></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Both Alexander and Iryna can barely remember the Soviet slogan “A peaceful atom to every household”, but recall a number of Soviet agitation posters with a depiction of a <a href="http://www.tgc1.ru/fileadmin/press_center/fotogallery/Plakaty/energetika.pdf" target="_blank">“peaceful atom”</a>, which characterized Soviet radioeuphoria. In this spirit, in northern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine" target="_blank">Ukraine</a> near the border with Belarus, a new town Pripyat was built in 1970, to serve the nearby <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant" target="_blank">Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant</a>, which was finished only in 1977. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">It is peculiar that nowadays besides the name ‘ghost city’, people know very little about Pripyat. After the Chernobyl explosion inhabitants were evacuated and Pripyat became <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_town" target="_blank">abandoned.</a> Journalist Sergey Geruk brings up interesting aspects about Pripyat in his article for the 27th anniversary of the Chernobyl disaster: “The average age of inhabitants was 27 years, there was no cemetery, as almost no one died.” There was no church as religion was considered a vestige needed exclusively for old and disabled people. In the “last full day of human life” [19] in Pripyat, 16 wedding ceremonies took place, every year about one thousand infants were born and according to newspapers, there were more than half a thousand pregnant women among evacuees from the area [20]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">While being populated, Pripyat with its planning and perspectives had been a truly utopian place for the new generation of Soviet people. Young workers there were secured with dwelling space and a good infrastructure, they relied on science and the Soviet ideology much more than on tradition or religion. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image8.jpg" height="400" width="260" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 8. Soviet poster, 1980 artist V.V. Syrianinov. <a href="http://rarita.ru/catalog/nauka/mirnyy_atom_sovetskiy_agitatsionnyy_plakat/">Source. <span style="color: black;"></span></a>Soviet symbols of sickle and hammer in the core of an atom with the headline: “Praise to the Soviet science!” and a poem “Shine as a guiding star, a living union of science and labor!” </span></span>
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<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The Soviet trust in, and admiration for, science was later blamed for the Chernobyl disaster in church circles [viii]. One of the Orthodox Churches in Kiev has a chapel-memorial for the victims of Chernobyl, which is supplemented with the verse: </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Let the poets praise Einstein and Nobel, </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Put Marie Curie to your bed side; </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Black storks fly from Chernobyl, </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Black storks with white blood… [ix] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">This text has little to do with Biblical images or teaching [x]. It openly blames the desire to glorify scientists and it demonstrates, in horrifying symbolic imagery, the consequences of the idolatry of science. In its apocalyptic spirit it depicts black storks as a symbol of Chernobyl with people leaving their land with ‘white blood’, which seems to be an allusion for leukemia, as it is sometimes referred to as ‘white blood disease’ in Russian and was a common result of radiation. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image9.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/06/romashko/images/image9.jpg" height="252" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 9. Chernobyl monument in Kiev. <a href="http://www.hram-feodosy.kiev.ua/history.htm" target="_blank">Source.</a></span></span> </td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Storks are symbolic for the Eastern Slavic region. People treat them with reverence and it is considered a great honor and a sign of luck when a stork makes a nest on your property. According to the folk legend a stork is human in its core, but was turned to the shape of a bird [21]. Therefore, a stork became a common image for the suffering folk in the memorial and in artworks dedicated to Chernobyl – one of the Chernobyl monuments in Kiev depicts storks that fall dead trapped into the orbit of an atom and one of a few Belarusian feature films about Chernobyl with religious elements is called “Black stork”. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Notably, the theme of the idolatry of science, atheism or communism often appears in my interviews as a reason for the punishment of Chernobyl. Idols and misdeeds get compared with the Chernobyl disaster or radiation. “The neglect of the life of the soul, the race for material welfare, ardour for pseudo-religious teachings based on human passions [xi],” – all of that can cause “spiritual Chernobyl” – according to the speech of Patriarch Kirill of Moscow, the leader of the Russian Orthodox Church [22]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Radiation is invisible, tasteless and odorless [23], it does not have boundaries – it penetrates and possesses human bodies, as well as objects and places. Radionuclides can have an extremely long lifespan and can harm multiple generations of people directly through their food and environments, as well as indirectly by various inherited genetic mutations. From these qualities alone radiation can be easily correlated with supernatural forces, such as demonic powers or even divine providence. Sin and evil are common comparisons for radiation as it tends to take away everything one values—land, health and loved ones. On the other hand, its power can also be viewed as beneficial as when generating energy for human consumption or used in measured doses for medicinal purposes. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The Flexibility of ‘Radiation’ and the Formation of New Spiritualities </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">As mentioned above, radiation’s qualities allow it to be interpreted as both divine and evil. Therefore, there is a big difference in interpretation, depending on the agenda of the narrator. New technologies allowed the power of the split atom to be used not only to destroy but also to heal. Cancer is one of the most common diseases in Chernobyl, which people blame on the radiation. Medical anthropologist Sarah Phillips claims with the reference to the Shcherbak’s work from 1996, that “In Ukraine, long-term low-dose radiation exposure is blamed for a great number of illnesses and deleterious health conditions. Cancer is the most obvious of these, especially thyroid cancer, whose incidence has increased at least ten-fold since the Chernobyl accident” [24]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">It is not easy to comprehend the irony that radiation that causes cancer, became nowadays one of the main means in cancer treatment therapy. This ambiguity of radiation allows people to see it as both curse and deliverance, as expressed in the Russian folk wisdom “klin klinom vyshybajut' (‘To drive out one wedge with another’ or to destroy the results of an action by the means an action caused beforehand) [xii]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">This is not the only ambiguous issue related to the consequence estimation of the Chernobyl accident. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Recently, based on <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/grrlscientist/2015/oct/05/what-happened-to-wildlife-when-chernobyl-drove-humans-out-it-thrived" target="_blank">biological research</a> conducted in nature reserves around Chernobyl, a number of people started to support the view that as destructive as radiation seems to be to all life forms the human impact on nature is far more destructive. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Robert J. Baker, Professor of Biology at Texas Tech University, summarizes that sentiment in the following way: “the research team I worked with determined that there were in fact ecological benefits to the accident [Chernobyl explosion]” [25]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Among the scholars confirming such a point of view Robert J. Backer lists, besides his own team, other independent groups and individuals such as Ron Chesser's team at Texas Tech; J.T. Smith's program at the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology in Dorchester, UK; and Steve Mihok of the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission [26]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">One of the most recent examples is the research in the Polessye State Radioecological Reserve within the Exclusion Zone, conducted by a number of international scholars lead by Tatiana Deryabina and published in October 2015 in the journal “Current Biology” [27]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">This paper shows that populations of large mammals in the Chernobyl exclusion zone was not reduced in comparison to other national parks in Belarus. Despite the fact, that this article was used as an example to confirm that the actual negative influence of radiation is less that it is commonly perceived, a Biology Professor Timothy Mousseau from the University of South Carolina, underlines, that “This study does not address the issue of whether radiation has effects on reproduction, survival, longevity, or general health of the animals surveyed” [28]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">A journalist and author Mary Mycio, one of the supporters of the more positive view on the ecological consequences of the accident, compares the renewal of nature in Chernobyl to its renewal with the demilitarized zones in her book <a href="http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/906332.Wormwood_Forest" target="_blank">“Wormwood Forest: A Natural History of Chernobyl”</a>. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">She shares her perception of the depopulated land through Biblical allusions. Her description of the Exclusion Zone and similar areas abandoned after the political and/or technological collapse gain connotations of the redeemed paradise and proximity to the original perfection of the world. She writes: “Like the flaming sword that God installed east of Eden to prevent man from reentering after the expulsion of Adam and Eve, land mines and machine guns kept people out of the DMZ [demilitarised zone], making it welcoming for wildlife” [29]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Through such works, the ideal of a non-human world and nature “re-verted to savagery” [30] becomes part of a possible explanation of divine providence and intention. This explanation can obtain overtones of millenarism, if complemented with the idea of ‘the perfection of the beginning’ [31] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">It is peculiar that Mycio keeps on comparing nature in the Zone with its historical conditions and mentions that this land became home for Drevlians, a tribe of Early East Slavs, in the 12th century when 80% of Polesia was covered by forest [32]. This reminiscence of the tribe also exists on the memorial plate under a bell in the Church of Prophet Elijah, the only working church in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">This plate reads: “The knell of sorrow. Pause and bow down! In front of you is Drevlian’s land in the woe of nuclear catastrophe. In respect to the folk, who lived here and were scattered as sand the whole world over. Oh, God! Help us sinful people to overcome this grief [xiii]. ” Surprisingly, this church text does not refer to Christian times or Christian people. The term Drevlians is much more common for addressing the first Slavic tribes of this area before they were converted to Christianity. In tune with this text is the Chernobyl Memorials at the Church of the Entry of Christ into Jerusalem and the Church of the Saint Nikolas the Wonderworker “In memory of the victims of Chernobyl” in Kiev which are represented by burial mounds. On this territory, graves are a visual sign that symbolically divide pre-Christian pagan and Christian cultures. With the conversion to Christianity the tradition of burial mounds slowly disappeared and graves reached the ground level. Hence, the presence of the burial mound seems to be a reference to the pre-Christian times. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">This turning back to the time of the ‘first people’ in the land of Chernobyl and a longing for virgin forests hints not only towards the “perfection of the beginning”, but also to the eschatological pattern described by Mircea Eliade as “cosmic fatigue, a universal exhaustion” [33]. In one of the interviews from the rural areas suffering from the post-Chernobyl radiation, collected by Belarusian ethnolinguist A.M. Boganeva, an elderly lady described Chernobyl as one of the apocalyptic signs – “There will be no Flood, because the land is suffering. There will be a river of fire coming from the heavens. It has been said long ago: ‘What is black verity [xv]? This is indeed Chernobyl. It has been said, that a bloodless war will start with the black verity. So it began. Elderly will live out their days, and the young ones will live a shortened lifetime. So, this is this way now [xiv].’” [34] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The other interviewee says: “Long ago people use to know much more. Maybe from their parents… The whole Earth will be entangled with the wires and people will fall ill… What do you think Chernobyl is? There is a nuclear power station there, but before there was none… Nowadays the whole world is entangled by wires. When we lived and as kids were going to school, we did not have electric lights… Before, for sure, people were healthier and they were better. They were believers, but the current generation is like that – brother goes against brother and sister against sister. Nowadays there is no heart, all stayed like stones…. I think, that, in my opinion, people became sinful. They did not acknowledge God, they rejected God. And God keeps his patience, but one day from a stroke the whole Earth will burn down. There will be new people, as the Scripture says. New people will lead a new life. But try to tell this nowadays to our young ones, they do not believe and do not listen [xvi].” [35] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Earlier in this paper, I mentioned a speech by the Patriarch Kirill of Moscow (the leader of the Russian Orthodox Church) where he compared the nuclear explosion to a “spiritual Chernobyl”. The anecdotal evidence gathered by Boganeva above seems to be in tune with the Patriarch’s comparison wherein the un-natural world is created by technological dependence, together with the decay of moral values---a view that unites official and folk religious opinions. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Conclusion: The Value of Radiation to Mythological Thinking </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The extraordinary qualities of radiation together with its power to both heal and annihilate makes its religious and mythological connotations unavoidable. The enormous amount of suffering after the Chernobyl accident demands a spiritually transcendent explanation which neither science nor factual history can provide. Nuclear risk estimation is an overwhelming task even for highly qualified scientists, and alien and difficult for the common population to comprehend. Thus, mythological thinking is a useful tool in this undertaking. Mythology is cyclic and it gives hope even in unjust and destroyed worlds. Religious examples inspire people to endure sufferings and to resist despair. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">From the examples we have seen so far, I have tried to show that there are different attitudes to radioactive contamination in post-Chernobyl Belarus which cause different spiritual allusions to the Chernobyl accident. Among them are apocalyptic visions and fear of the demonic power of radiation, as well as "nostalgia for origins" and hopes for the renewal of the world through the exclusion of human influence from the contaminated territories and flourishing of 'wild' nature in the Zone. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The post-Chernobyl situation is not limited to the contaminated areas. Due to mass media and popular culture, religious perceptions about such events are emerging all around the globe. The beliefs people share to describe their understanding of the post-Chernobyl world reflect perpetual fears and hopes regarding ambiguous phenomena, such as technological development, social control through societal and medical systems or institutions, nuclear energy and forced resettlement. Due to the combination of all these issues and a specific situation of on-going ecological and social crisis, which cannot be fixed no matter what investments and efforts are applied, the need for, and value of, post-Chernobyl research is extremely high. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><b>Endnotes</b> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[i] Liquidators is a colloquial term for the civil and military personnel summoned to minimize the consequences of the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster. They are also called ‘recovery operation workers’, ‘emergency clean-up workers’ and ‘bio robots’. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[ii] There were long-term effects of the Twin Towers collapse especially for the responders like firefighters but these were different in nature from radiation. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[iii] “The institute of radiating safety “BELRAD” was created in 1990 as independent not state organization. It provides radiation monitoring of the inhabitants and foods of Chernobyl zone, scientific researches and develops measures on maintenance of radiation safety and organizes implementation of the results in practice. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[iv] This motto was turned by the fans of black humor to the popular post-Chernobyl joke – “Communism is Soviet power plus the radiation of the whole country”. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[v] </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">'Ilyich’s lamp' </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>after the patronymic of Lenin. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[vi] The proximity of the Communist dream is reflected in a number of names which signify the direct connection between electrification and Communism for Soviet people. A Decree of separation of State from Church in 1918 caused the so called onomastic boom in the USSR and gave birth to a number of new names based on abbreviations and neologisms. Not only traditional names were replaced, the system of naming changed. Instead of biblical names and names of saints and martyrs which were chosen according to the church calendar, people created new names to celebrate their new beliefs and new heroes. The most well-known became names composed from the names of political and ideological leaders such as Vladlen (Vladimir Lenin) or Mels (Marx – Engels – Lenin </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">–</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> Stalin). Nevertheless industrial hopes of the common people were celebrated as well – Elektrik, Elektrina, Elektron, Elektrofikacia, Elektromir and Edison came into being. However, abbreviated names such as Lorieks (Lenin – October Revolution – Industrialization – Electrification – Collectivization – Socialism) and Elina (Electrification – Industrialization) show the key steps to communism and both have “electrification” as an integral part. See Ivashko, V. A. <i>Кak vybirajut imena,</i> Minsk, Vyshjejshaja shkola, 1980. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[vii] V. A. Ivashko analyzes names given to Soviet kids in 1967 and admits the special popularity of naming them after physicists. See Ivashko, V. A. Кak vybirajut imena, Minsk, Vyshjejshaja shkola, 1980., p.121. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[viii] By under ‘church circles’ I mean the believers who are influenced by church literature and culture but are not ordinated or involved in the church administration. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[ix] ‘Slavte, poeti, Ejnshtejna і Nobelja, Postavte Marіju Kjurі uzgolov'ju, Chornі leleki letjat' iz Chornobilja, Chornі leleki z bіloju krovіju…’ (ukr. ‘Славте, поети, Ейнштейна і Нобеля, Поставте Марію Кюрі узголов'ю, Чорні лелеки летять iз Чорнобиля, Чорні лелеки з білою кровію…’) </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[x] Maybe it is the reason why it was supplemented with an additional plate with the text “For those who gave their lives for my life”, which has a very different message. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[xi] “ Но может случиться и духовный Чернобыль. Полное безразличие к жизни души, погоня за исключительно материальными благами, увлечение псевдодуховными учениями, покоящимися на человеческих страстях, — вот очаги множественного поражения в современном мире. ” (Translation from Russian is mine, E.R.) </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[xii] “Клин клином вышибают” (Translation from Russian is mine, E.R.) </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[xiii] “Дзвін скорботи. Зупинися і схили голову, перед тобою Древлянська земля із смутком ядерної катастрофи. Перед народом, який жив тут віками і як пісок розсипався по всьому світу. Боже, допоможи нам грішним здолати цю біду.” (Translation from Ukrainian is mine, E.R.) </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">References </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[1] "Posledstvija Chernobyl'skoj Katastrofy Dlja Belarusi." Departament Po Likvidacii Posledstvij Katastrofy Na Chernobyl'skoj AJeS MChS Respubliki Belarus' Web. 12 Feb. 2016. <http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""> </http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by="">[2] Bashilov, A.V. Belarus’ i Chernobyl’: 27 let spustja = Belarus and Chernobyl: 27 years later. Minsk: Institut radiologii, 2013, p. 4. </http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by="">[3] "27 Let Nazad Proizoshla Katastrofa Na Chernobyl’skoj AJeS." TUT.BY. 26 Apr. 2013. Web. 12 Feb. 2016. <http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""> </http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society="">[4] Phillips, Sarah Drue. “Chernobyl Forever”. <i>Somatosphere.</i> 25 Apr. 2011. Web. 11 Apr. 2016. <http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""> </http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net="">[5] Sovacool, Benjamin K. 2010. “A critical evaluation of nuclear power and renewable electricity in Asia”. <i>Journal of Contemporary Asia.</i> 40 (3): 369-400. </http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net="">[6] Falkof, Nicky. "Heroes with a Half Life: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and American Repression of Radiophobia after Chernobyl." <i>The Journal of Popular Culture</i> 46.5 (2013): 931-49. Print, p. 938. </http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net="">[7] Ibid, p. 931. </http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net="">[8] Aleksievich, Svetlana, and Keith Gessen. <i>Voices from Chernobyl: The Oral History of a Nuclear Disaster.</i> 1st ed. New York: Picador, 2006, p. vii. </http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net="">[9] Ibid. </http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net="">[10] Bennett, Burton, Michael Repacholi, and Zhanat Carr. <i>Health Effects of the Chernobyl Accident and Special Health Care Programmes: Report of the UN Chernobyl Forum Expert Group "Health".</i> Geneva: World Health Organization, 2006, p. 99. </http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net="">[11] Ilyin, L.A., and Pavlovskij O.A. "Radiological Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident in the Soviet Union and Measures Taken to Mitigate Their Impact." <i>IAEA Bulletin</i> Vol. 29.4 (1987): 17-24. IAEA. Web. 11 Apr. 2016, p. 24.</http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net="">[12] Petryna, Adriana. "Biological Citizenship: The Science and Politics of Chernobyl-Exposed Populations." <i>Osiris</i> 2nd ser. 19 (2004): 250-65. JSTOR. Web. 29 Jan. 2009, p. 259. <http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""> </http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org="">[13] Ibid, p. 262. </http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org="">[14] Snopkov, A.E. Ėnergetika Rossii V Plakate =: <i>Russian Energetics Through Poster Art</i>, 2012. Web. 29 March. 2016. <http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""> </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru="">[15] From my interview with Iryna (born in 1963, chemical engineer, currently jobless). </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru="">[16] Laursen, Eric. "Lenin’s Lamps." <i>Wonders Marvels.</i> Feb. 2013. Web. 11 Apr. 2016. <http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""> </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com="">[17] From my interview with Alexander (born 1964, PhD in electro-chemistry, currently works in private business). </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com="">[18] From my interview with Iryna. </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com="">[19] Mycio, Mary. <i>Wormwood Forest: A Natural History of Chernobyl.</i> Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry, 2005. Print. p.<i> </i>3. </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com="">[20] Abramov, V. " Zhenshhinam iz Pripjati zapreshhali rozhat =: It was forbidden for women from Pripyat to give birth" <i>Novosti Ukrainy.</i> 21 Apr. 2011. Web. 11 Apr. 2016. </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com="">[21] Boganeva, Alena M. <i>Belaruskaâ "narodnaâ Bibliâ" Ŭ Sučasnyh Zapisah.</i> Minsk: Belaruski Dzâržaŭny Ŭniversitèt Kul'tury i Mastactvaŭ, 2010. Print, p. 39; 48. </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com="">[22] Patriarch of Moscow, Kirill. "Chtoby Ne Sluchilsya Duxovnyj Chernobyl." Pravmir.ru. 27 Sept. 2009. Web. 12 Feb. 2016. <http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru=""> </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru="">[23] Phillips, Sarah Drue. "Half-Lives and Healthy Bodies: Discourses on Contaminated Food and Healing in Postchernobyl Ukraine." <i>Food and Foodways </i>10.1-2 (2002): 27-53, p. 4. </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru="">[24] Ibid, p. 5. </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru="">[25] Robert J. Baker, “Surprise Ending”, <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientist,</i> No. January/February (2006): 60. </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru="">[26] Baker, Robert J., and Jeffrey K. Wickliffe. "Wildlife and Chernobyl: The Scientific Evidence for Minimal Impacts." <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.</i> 14 Apr. 2011. Web. 11 Apr. 2016. <http: 11="" 2016.="" 25.19="" a.="" abundant="" and="" apr.="" at="" beasley="" biology="" census="" chernobyl.="" current-biology="" current="" data="" deryabina="" hinton="" http:="" j.c.="" j.t.="" kuchmel="" l.l.="" lerebours="" nagorskaya="" ong-term="" pdf="" populations="" r824-826.="" reveal="" s.v.="" smith.="" t.g.="" thebulletin.org="" web.="" wildlife-and-chernobyl-scientific-evidence-minimal-impacts="" wildlife="" www.cell.com=""> </http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru=""><http: 11="" 2016.="" 25.19="" a.="" abundant="" and="" apr.="" at="" beasley="" biology="" census="" chernobyl.="" current-biology="" current="" data="" deryabina="" hinton="" http:="" j.c.="" j.t.="" kuchmel="" l.l.="" lerebours="" nagorskaya="" ong-term="" pdf="" populations="" r824-826.="" reveal="" s.v.="" smith.="" t.g.="" thebulletin.org="" web.="" wildlife-and-chernobyl-scientific-evidence-minimal-impacts="" wildlife="" www.cell.com="">[28] GrrlScientist. "What Happened to Wildlife When Chernobyl Drove Humans Out? It Thrived." <i>The Guardian.</i> Guardian News and Media, 05 Oct. 2015. Web. 11 Apr. 2016. <https: grrlscientist="" oct="" science="" what-happened-to-wildlife-when-chernobyl-drove-humans-out-it-thrived="" www.theguardian.com=""> </https:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru=""><http: 11="" 2016.="" 25.19="" a.="" abundant="" and="" apr.="" at="" beasley="" biology="" census="" chernobyl.="" current-biology="" current="" data="" deryabina="" hinton="" http:="" j.c.="" j.t.="" kuchmel="" l.l.="" lerebours="" nagorskaya="" ong-term="" pdf="" populations="" r824-826.="" reveal="" s.v.="" smith.="" t.g.="" thebulletin.org="" web.="" wildlife-and-chernobyl-scientific-evidence-minimal-impacts="" wildlife="" www.cell.com=""><https: grrlscientist="" oct="" science="" what-happened-to-wildlife-when-chernobyl-drove-humans-out-it-thrived="" www.theguardian.com="">[29] Mycio, Mary. <i>Wormwood Forest.</i> p.128. </https:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru=""><http: 11="" 2016.="" 25.19="" a.="" abundant="" and="" apr.="" at="" beasley="" biology="" census="" chernobyl.="" current-biology="" current="" data="" deryabina="" hinton="" http:="" j.c.="" j.t.="" kuchmel="" l.l.="" lerebours="" nagorskaya="" ong-term="" pdf="" populations="" r824-826.="" reveal="" s.v.="" smith.="" t.g.="" thebulletin.org="" web.="" wildlife-and-chernobyl-scientific-evidence-minimal-impacts="" wildlife="" www.cell.com=""><https: grrlscientist="" oct="" science="" what-happened-to-wildlife-when-chernobyl-drove-humans-out-it-thrived="" www.theguardian.com="">[30] Ibid. </https:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru=""><http: 11="" 2016.="" 25.19="" a.="" abundant="" and="" apr.="" at="" beasley="" biology="" census="" chernobyl.="" current-biology="" current="" data="" deryabina="" hinton="" http:="" j.c.="" j.t.="" kuchmel="" l.l.="" lerebours="" nagorskaya="" ong-term="" pdf="" populations="" r824-826.="" reveal="" s.v.="" smith.="" t.g.="" thebulletin.org="" web.="" wildlife-and-chernobyl-scientific-evidence-minimal-impacts="" wildlife="" www.cell.com=""><https: grrlscientist="" oct="" science="" what-happened-to-wildlife-when-chernobyl-drove-humans-out-it-thrived="" www.theguardian.com="">[31] Eliade, Mircea. <i>Myth and Reality. </i>New York: Harper & Row, 1963. Print. </https:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru=""><http: 11="" 2016.="" 25.19="" a.="" abundant="" and="" apr.="" at="" beasley="" biology="" census="" chernobyl.="" current-biology="" current="" data="" deryabina="" hinton="" http:="" j.c.="" j.t.="" kuchmel="" l.l.="" lerebours="" nagorskaya="" ong-term="" pdf="" populations="" r824-826.="" reveal="" s.v.="" smith.="" t.g.="" thebulletin.org="" web.="" wildlife-and-chernobyl-scientific-evidence-minimal-impacts="" wildlife="" www.cell.com=""><https: grrlscientist="" oct="" science="" what-happened-to-wildlife-when-chernobyl-drove-humans-out-it-thrived="" www.theguardian.com="">[32] Mycio, Mary. <i>Wormwood Forest,</i> p. 46. </https:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru=""><http: 11="" 2016.="" 25.19="" a.="" abundant="" and="" apr.="" at="" beasley="" biology="" census="" chernobyl.="" current-biology="" current="" data="" deryabina="" hinton="" http:="" j.c.="" j.t.="" kuchmel="" l.l.="" lerebours="" nagorskaya="" ong-term="" pdf="" populations="" r824-826.="" reveal="" s.v.="" smith.="" t.g.="" thebulletin.org="" web.="" wildlife-and-chernobyl-scientific-evidence-minimal-impacts="" wildlife="" www.cell.com=""><https: grrlscientist="" oct="" science="" what-happened-to-wildlife-when-chernobyl-drove-humans-out-it-thrived="" www.theguardian.com="">[33] Eliade, Mircea. <i>The Quest; History and Meaning in Religion.</i> Chicago: Univerity of Chicago, 1969. Print, p. 105. </https:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru=""><http: 11="" 2016.="" 25.19="" a.="" abundant="" and="" apr.="" at="" beasley="" biology="" census="" chernobyl.="" current-biology="" current="" data="" deryabina="" hinton="" http:="" j.c.="" j.t.="" kuchmel="" l.l.="" lerebours="" nagorskaya="" ong-term="" pdf="" populations="" r824-826.="" reveal="" s.v.="" smith.="" t.g.="" thebulletin.org="" web.="" wildlife-and-chernobyl-scientific-evidence-minimal-impacts="" wildlife="" www.cell.com=""><https: grrlscientist="" oct="" science="" what-happened-to-wildlife-when-chernobyl-drove-humans-out-it-thrived="" www.theguardian.com="">[34] The interview was written down in 2011 by A.M. Boganeva, during the Belarusian Academy of Science ethnolinguistic expedition to the village Mokhau, Gomel region from Matrona Afanasenka (born in 1933, 3 grades of education, Russian orthodox). </https:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><http: index.php="" option="com_content" www.chernobyl.gov.by=""><http: html="" news.tut.by="" society=""><http: chernobyl-forever.html="" somatosphere.net=""><http: stable="" www.jstor.org=""><http: energetika.pdf="" fileadmin="" fotogallery="" lakaty="" press_center="" www.tgc1.ru=""><http: lenins-lamps-2.html="" www.wondersandmarvels.com=""><http: chtoby-ne-sluchilsya-duxovnyj-chernobyl="" www.pravmir.ru=""><http: 11="" 2016.="" 25.19="" a.="" abundant="" and="" apr.="" at="" beasley="" biology="" census="" chernobyl.="" current-biology="" current="" data="" deryabina="" hinton="" http:="" j.c.="" j.t.="" kuchmel="" l.l.="" lerebours="" nagorskaya="" ong-term="" pdf="" populations="" r824-826.="" reveal="" s.v.="" smith.="" t.g.="" thebulletin.org="" web.="" wildlife-and-chernobyl-scientific-evidence-minimal-impacts="" wildlife="" www.cell.com=""><https: grrlscientist="" oct="" science="" what-happened-to-wildlife-when-chernobyl-drove-humans-out-it-thrived="" www.theguardian.com="">[35] The interview was written down in 2002 by A.M. Boganeva, during the Belarusian Academy of Science ethnolinguistic expedition to the isolated homestead Draki (close to the village Katy), Grodno region from Valiancina Kazakevich (born in 1925, 2 grades of education, Russian orthodox).
</https:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></http:></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-87043954219373229042016-05-03T18:07:00.002-07:002016-05-03T18:07:18.008-07:00Material, Embodied and Lived Religion: Basket Divination in Practice and Theory<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/sonia-silva.html" target="_blank">Sónia Silva</a> draws upon her ethnographic work with basket diviners and their clients in northwest Zambia, Africa, to argue that the practice of basket divination is a material and embodied one. Further, it is a lived religion defined by the precariousness of human life and the transformative force of suffering. Without this broader existential context, basket divination would not be a lived religion.</span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Silva, Sónia</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"Material, Embodied and Lived Religion: Basket Divination in Practice and Theory"</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> b</span>log <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">p</span>ost<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">.</span> <i>Material Religions.</i> 4 May 2016. Web. [date of access]</span> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The concepts of material religion, embodied religion, and lived religion enable a focus on religion as it is lived by embodied and sensual individuals in full engagement with the material world [i]. Lived religion is material and embodied religion. In addition, lived religion is also religion as it is lived by people on their own terms, and quite independently of the ongoing debate in academia on the place of materiality and embodiment in religion. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">What does material and embodied religion mean to different people? What does it mean to Catholics in Spain, Bahá’i Faith followers in the United States and basket divination participants in Zambia? How do individuals recount their religious experiences of embodiment and materiality in their words and on their terms? Having worked with several basket diviners and many of their clients in northwest Zambia during two years of ethnographic fieldwork, I know that they would likely concur with the portrayal of basket divination as a material and embodied practice. Basket divination is a material and embodied religion. This statement, though, opens up a longer conversation. In northwest Zambia, the divination basket and the diviner’s body are perceived to be the concretization of the divination spirit, Kayongo; the concretized spirit takes the form of both the oracle (a personified material object) and the diviner’s body (an objectified human subject); and the entire institution of basket divination is seen as a human project in which human subjects relinquish control in order to regain control in times of suffering and uncertainty. Deprived of this broader existential context defined by the precariousness of human life and the transformative force of suffering, basket divination would no longer be a lived religion. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Material Religion </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The European and North American fascination with the symbolic pieces contained in the divination basket dates back to the early twentieth century, a time of European conquest and colonial domination in Africa. Each basket contains thirty or so pieces of different shapes, sizes and materials. Some of these articles are drawn from the realm of nature (a rooster’s claw, a small duiker’s horn, a tree seed) whereas others are manufactured (a metal bracelet, a coin, wooden carvings). Collectively, they are known as <i>jipelo</i>. While each piece has a different name as well as meaning, it is helpful to associate it with a range of related meanings that are bound to change depending on the surrounding pieces. The Europeans who came across divination baskets during their travels through northwest Zambia and the neighboring regions of Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the home of basket divination, were immediately drawn to the basket’s contents, a veritable microcosm of social life in the region. Some of them interviewed basket diviners and wrote down the symbolism of each piece. They were clearly drawn to the sheer materiality of such intriguing collections. This said, they never conceptualized their data as ‘material religion.’ In their view, the material properties of those pieces were secondary to their symbolism, and their overarching interest in symbolism fully justified the descriptive and analytical focus on the basket’s contents. Few of these authors showed any interest in the diviner-oracle relation or other performative aspects of basket divination. Their main focus was symbolism, and not ritual performance or ontology. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/05/silva/images/Fig1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/05/silva/images/Fig1.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">Figure 1: Sakutemba’s divining basket, 1999 (photo by S. Silva)</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Material religion reverses this approach. While many researchers of material religion continue to see religious objects as symbols (as objects that stand for referents that lie beyond the material substance of those objects) they are also interested in studying the relations between objects and humans in religious practice [ii]. Other authors, less compromising in their approach, opt to peel off the outer layer of symbolism, which they see as a problematic distraction from their focus on the relational categories of ‘human’ and ‘nonhuman.’ Irrespective of theoretical inspiration, however, the engagement between human subjects and material objects in religious practice is paramount. Basket divination is known as <i>basket divination</i> for a good reason: this oracular technique relies on the use of a woven basket. Basket divination is also a technique in which spiritual messages are not exclusively communicated in words. The divination spirit delivers his knowledge in multiple ways, including the material form of divinatory pieces arranged in meaningful configurations. The divination basket plays a key role in basket divination. In northwest Zambia, many diviners employ other material oracles <i>(jingombo)</i>, such as wooden poles and pounding mortars filled with medicated water. Basket diviners, who are always men, employ the <i>ngombo yalipele</i>, the oracle known as <i>lipele</i>, a term that in its broadest sense refers not only to the divination basket but also its paraphernalia: for example, the flask <i>(mutumwa)</i>, used as a secondary oracle; the bundle of broken arrows <i>(mikuta yamivwi ya vivimbi)</i>, which stands for the total number of consultations conducted on the subject of death; and the dumbbell-shaped woven rattle <i>(musambo)</i>, which diviners shake to open their séances. A <i>lipele</i> diviner without a <i>lipele</i> is not a diviner; and a <i>lipele</i> oracle without a diviner is not an oracle. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The divination basket is also known as <i>ngombo yakusekula</i>, meaning the type of oracle in which the diviner, holding the oracle with both hands, shakes it upward with a brisk movement. Not only does this technique define the act of divining, but it is also a requirement for joining the divining profession. This learning process takes place during a formal apprenticeship to senior diviners, and it may take months, and even years, to complete. Apprentices learn on the job. They accompany their masters on divination trips; they carry their masters’ <i>lipele</i> oracles in a large basket known as a <i>kumba</i>; they swiftly grab the divination pieces that sometimes fall on the ground in the process of divining, placing them back in the basket; and they participate in the séances by repeating the shorter segments of their masters’ divination speech, for example. When they show signs of wisdom and skill, their masters may ask them to shake the basket in their stead. Divining is a body technique. To master the difficult technique of basket shaking is at least as important as learning the meaning of the pieces arranged in configurations. The diviners’ apprenticeship is therefore a period of incorporation, a period during which the divination basket becomes a material extension of the human body [iii]. And yet, to fully understand the expression <i>ngombo yakusekula</i> (divining by shaking), we must broaden the definition of incorporation to include another key concept in the study of lived religion—embodiment. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><b>Embodied Religion</b> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Let us preface our engagement with the concept of embodied religion with two questions: What is the source of knowledge in basket divination? How is that knowledge revealed and conveyed? </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">A divination session opens with a long, formulaic speech known as <i>kukombela</i>, or to invoke. In this speech, the diviner invokes Kayongo as well as renowned chiefs, national political leaders, and diviners, both dead and alive, while he shakes his <i>musambo</i> rattle with his right hand. Following the invocation, the diviner lowers his rattle and readies himself for the longest and most important section of his séance, the divination proper. Now, he grabs the basket with both hands and shakes it briskly upward. He poses questions to the basket in a yes-or-no format (“I see a man; is he dead or alive?”) and receives the answers to his questions in the form of symbolic articles drawn in configurations. Since consulters are not able to fully interpret those configurations, it is the job of diviners to translate the visible language of divination pieces into the audible language of words. Every divination session consists in a rapid succession of basket shakings, observations of symbolic configurations, and verbal translations of those material messages. During his divinatory journey, the diviner moves back and forth in his interpretive readings, searching for knowledge. Suddenly, he feels a sharp pain in his heart. That pain is a sign that the truth has emerged in his basket and should now be shared with his clients in plain words. He lowers his basket and asks, “Do you confirm? That man lying moribund on a mat is still alive; true or false?” Diviners come to their conclusions through pain. They also describe the embodied experience of Kayongo as an upward movement from heart to the head, a growing pressure in the chest, and an increasingly faster and heavier heart beat. Kayongo is experienced <i>in</i> the body. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/05/silva/images/Fig2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com//blog/2016/05/silva/images/Fig2.jpg" height="400" width="266" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">Figure 2: Mutondo doing the invocation, 1996 (photo by S. Silva)</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Although Kayongo, the source of divinatory knowledge, is a spiritual entity, he does not deliver his messages to the living in a flash of understanding. Kayongo communicates in the form of material objects, words, and physical pain. The divination basket is the means—the body—through which Kayongo’s truth becomes perceptible to humans thanks to their sense of sight. The diviner, being human, is the means through which Kayongo becomes not only visible but also audible in the form of words, and felt as physical pain. In this sense, both the diviner and his basket become Kayongo through a process of embodiment. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">To better grasp the importance of embodiment in basket divination, it is important to briefly consider other key moments in the diviner’s lifelong relationship with Kayongo. The first moment takes place when the diviner first encounters the religious universe of basket divination. He is still an ordinary man like many of his peers, but he has been struggling with a relentless illness for sometime. Fearing for his life, his relatives take him to a senior basket diviner. The one to blame, the diviner tells them, is Kayongo. Kayongo has ‘caught’ their relative because he wants to recruit him into the divining profession. Whereas other ancestral manifestations, such as Kula, for example, may cause menstrual and reproductive problems in women, Kayongo is known to cause chest pains, breathing difficulty, and episodes of lunacy. Kayongo is also well known for his cruelty. The senior diviner now informs his clients that their sick relative must undergo a nightlong healing ceremony, another defining moment in the patient’s relationship with Kayongo. This ceremony both heals the patient and initiates him into the divination profession. This time, though, the signs of Kayongo possession differ from the initial symptoms of disease. The patient’s eyes roll upward, his throat produces hoarse sounds, his body jerks violently, and his teeth kill a red cockerel by biting its neck. The sick man is no longer himself; he is now Kayongo. While scholars refer to this process as ‘possession trance,’ the Luvale-speakers in northwest Zambia speak of ‘catching’ <i>(kwachila) </i>‘coming out’ <i>(kulovoka)</i> and ‘jerking’ <i>(kutunguta)</i>. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Kayongo communicates with his victims through pain and physical suffering. Initially, as we have seen, Kayongo forces them to join the divinatory profession by causing pain in their chest, strong headaches, and periods of lunacy. These symptoms are the physical signs that Kayongo has caught them. Yet Kayongo is an ambivalent spirit. Having afflicted his victims with pain and disease, Kayongo proceeds to heal and initiate them into the divining profession by taking over their bodies. This reversal of fortune takes place during their healing and nightlong initiation rituals. Later, in the context of séances, Kayongo delivers knowledge by inflicting chest pain on the diviners each time the truth emerges inside the basket. Kayongo also ensures that diviners watch over their oracles and perform the required rites throughout their lives. Diviners know that Kayongo is never absent. Should they break taboos such as eating food with a slimy texture or engaging in sexual intercourse during daytime, Kayongo strikes them with pain and mental confusion. Diviners develop a lifelong relationship with Kayongo, a cruel yet benevolent ancestral manifestation whom they come to know through their bodies. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><b>Lived Religion</b> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">So far we have seen that basket divination is material religion and embodied religion, confirming that these concepts illuminate the ethnography in new, refreshing ways, and that the ethnography confirms the heuristic value of those concepts. Although it would not be entirely incorrect to say that the diviners and their clients ‘believe’ in Kayongo, we should acknowledge that in this ‘belief system’ most people are not particularly interested in the nature of the ancestral realm and its place in the broader cosmology. It is said that Kayongo, being an ancestral manifestation <i>(a lihamba)</i>, travels in the wind, but few people would ever asks such absurd questions as how Kayongo is able to travel in the wind or where he presumably resides. Every time I broached such topics, I received the same one-word answer: <i>Kwiji </i>(Who knows). My interlocutors seemed perfectly satisfied with the general understanding of Kayongo as a spiritual manifestation of dead relatives who practiced basket divination during their lifetime. In the universe of <i>mahamba</i> (plural of <i>lihamba</i>), the distinction between ‘belief’ and ‘practice’ is merely theoretical. Kayongo is the <i>lipele</i>; Kayongo is the diviner’s body as it shakes the divination basket and feels pain; and Kayongo is the words of knowledge that the diviners deliver to their clients. Kayongo does not exist apart from these material and physical manifestations. Basket divination is material and embodied religion. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Yet basket divination is more than material and embodied religion. For theoretical purposes, it may suffice to bring out the relation and interaction between spirit, embodied human subject, and material object. For the participants in the séances, however, such a perspective does not capture the specificity of basket divination as it is locally practiced and understood. Firstly, basket divination is not simply the setting where three ontological entities meet and interact; it is also one means through which Kayongo acquires perceptible form. People refer to this process in the language of ‘coming out.’ Basket divination is a ‘coming out’ ritual, a ritual where an ancestral manifestation makes itself known to the living by becoming materialized in three related forms: material configurations of symbolic pieces that can be seen and interpreted; physical pain inflicted on the diviners each time they come across a truthful interpretation; and the words uttered by the diviners when they translate the meaning of material configurations for their clients. This is an important point. Kayongo makes himself visible, felt, and audible to the living. The synergistic engagement between the spirit, embodied subject, and material object is, in effect, a process of spiritual concretization. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Secondly, this process of concretization follows a certain pattern. Although the distinctions between the three ontological categories at play in divination—ancestral spirit, material object, and human subject—are never completely lost to the participants, those categories combine in predictable ways. When Kayongo comes out, the divination basket (a material object) becomes an embodied subject, and the diviner (an embodied human subject) becomes a vessel for Kayongo. What may appear to be a relation between a material object and a human body is better described as a relation between a personified material object and an objectified human subject. When Kayongo comes out, the basket exhibits human characteristics. The oracle is now said to hear and understand the diviner’s questions, to obligingly respond or stubbornly remain silent. Conversely, at the same time that the basket becomes personified, the diviner becomes objectified. My friend Sapasa once explained this process of objectification by saying that the diviner becomes Kayongo’s megaphone. The diviner is a subject deprived of subjectivity. Consulters convey the same idea when they insist that ‘real’ basket diviners do not speak for themselves, tainting their messages with their biased interpretations; ‘real’ diviners convey Kayongo’s truth. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Many northwest Zambians as well as scholars share an understanding of spirit possession as a continuum along which particular experiences and cultural definitions of spirit possession may be placed. While in some cases, the possessed fall into a trance (as happens to Kayongo’s victims in their healing and initiation ceremonies), in other cases, the possessed move to an altered state of consciousness without falling into a trance (as professional diviners do during séances). This said, many northwest Zambians would challenge academics to extend the concept of possession to the realm of material objects. Such empowered objects as the <i>lipele</i> may be ‘possessed’ as well. Interestingly, the language of ‘coming out’ is preferred to the language of ‘catching’ in this context. Whereas the language of ‘catching’ is typically reserved for humans (as when Kayongo’s victims are first ‘caught’ and made ill as a way to force them into the divining profession), the language of ‘coming out’ is inclusive of both humans and material objects. Irrespectively of the terms used, however, the concretization of Kayongo in the ritual space of séances takes place through ontological reversals in which an object becomes a person, and a human subject becomes an object. The efficacy of basket divination (its ability to reveal spiritual knowledge) is predicated on this process of ontological reversal that takes place when Kayongo ‘comes out.’ </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Thirdly and lastly, as lived religion, basket divination is a human project. We have seen that the engagement between the material object and human subject is best described as a process of spiritual concretization, and that such a process of concretization generates an ontological reversal in which the object becomes personified and the human subject becomes objectified. We are now in a better position to recognize that the entire institution of basket divination is, in effect, a human project. In this project, human subjects take the risk of relinquishing control in order to acquire spiritually authenticated knowledge and thereby regain some measure of existential control over their precarious lives. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">In basket divination, this existential theme is tied to the ritual process of de-subjectivation. Diviners let Kayongo take over their bodies and sense of subjectivity. To receive Kayongo’s knowledge, the diviners endure pain and lose control of their own thoughts and bodily sensations, becoming extensions of the material and spiritual world. They become objectified human subjects, the reversal of object animation. Diviners are also men who are willing to suffer on behalf of their clients because they recognize value in suffering. In the same way that they joined the divination profession through physical suffering inflicted on them by Kayongo, so here they access true knowledge through chest pain, a pain caused by Kayongo. In order to assuage the suffering of others, diviners (all <i>mahamba</i> healers) must suffer, too. Basket divination is a circle of suffering, a circle built on the principle that suffering heals and transforms [iv]. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">In this circle of suffering, and similarly to the diviners, the consulters are not in a position of power. True, they may decide to end their séance at any point should the diviner’s performance disappoint them. They may even lose their temper and chase out the diviner should he accuse them of witchcraft (and add insult to injury by asking them to pay for the accusation). Consulters do have some power. This said, existentially speaking, consulters are not in a position of control. Maybe they have lost a close relative, fear for the life of a loved one who is moribund, or worry about infertility or impotence. They feel at a loss. They do not know what to do next. They realize that by participating in séances they relinquish control to Kayongo, who explains their predicament on his own terms; nevertheless, they hope that by relinquishing control to Kayongo they may return home with both truthful knowledge concerning the cause of their misfortunes and a treatment plan. This existential movement from confusion to clarity, and inertia to resoluteness, is key in basket divination as well as other divination systems worldwide. As lived religion, basket divination is a human project in which humans yield control in order to regain control. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">The concepts of material religion and embodied religion enable us to recognize the place of material objects and embodied human subjects in lived religion. The concept of lived religion enables us to infuse this insight with life as lived on the ground by real, embodied human subjects in engagement with material objects. This should be our goal as scholars and students of religion: to show that lived religion is always material and embodied religion without ever reducing it to a theoretical statement against immaterialism and disembodiment in the study of religion. How do people live their ‘lived religion’? </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Acknowledgements </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">I would like to extend my gratitude to David Morgan, Urmila Mohan and Keith Forbes for all their help in preparing this post. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Endnotes </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[i] See David Morgan’s post <a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/2014/09/the-material-culture-of-lived-religions.html" target="_blank">The Material Culture of Lived Religions: Visuality and Embodiment. </a></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[ii] For a discussion of the link between object and representation, see <a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/2014/11/the-magritte-effect-in-study-of.html" target="_blank">The ‘Magritte Effect’ in the Study of Religion</a>, a post by Jean-Pierre Warnier. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[iii] On technique and the body, see Jean-Pierre Warnier’s post <a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.dk/2014/09/food-for-thought-contributions-of.html" target="_blank">Food for Thought: The Contributions of ‘Matière à Penser’ to the Study of Material Culture</a>. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">[iv] In her post <a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/2016/03/the-magic-of-mimesis-historically.html" target="_blank">The Magic of Mimesis</a>, Raquel Romberg discusses the sharing of suffering between healers and patients in Puerto Rico. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Recommended Reading </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Csordas, Thomas J. <i>The Sacred Self: A Cultural Phenomenology of Charismatic Healing. </i>Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Csordas, Thomas J. “Embodiment as a Paradigm for Anthropology.”<i> Ethos </i>18 (1990): 5–47. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Engelke, Matthew. “Material Religion.” In The <i>Cambridge Companion to Religious Studies, </i>ed. Robert A. Orsi, 209-229. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Gell, Alfred. 1998. <i>Art and Agency.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Morgan, David. <a href="http://religion.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-32" target="_blank">“Religion and Embodiment in the Study of Material Culture.”</a> In <i>Religion: Oxford Research Encyclopedias,</i> online publication, 2015. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Plate, S. Brent, ed. <i>Key Terms in Material Religion. </i>London: Bloomsbury, 2015. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Silva, Sónia. <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/5/4/1175" target="_blank">“Mind, Body and Spirit in Basket Divination: An Integrative Way of Knowing.” </a><i>Religions</i> 5 (2014): 1175–1187. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Silva, Sónia.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> “Remarks on Similarity in Ritual classification: Affliction, Divination, and Object Animation.” <i>History of Religions</i> 53 (2013): 151–169. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Silva, Sónia.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> <i>Along an African Border: Angolan Refugees and Their Divination Baskets. </i>Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Turner, Victor. <i>Revelation and Divination in Ndembu Ritual.</i> Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Velasquez, Manuel. <i>More than Belief: A Materialist Theory of Religion.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-56972312408726144732016-03-15T20:23:00.000-07:002016-03-15T20:27:26.643-07:00The Magic of Mimesis: A Historically Informed Anthropology of Sympathetic Magic and Contact<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/raquel-romberg.html" target="_blank">Raquel Romberg</a> provides an indepth review of magic and mimesis from an anthropological perspective. Drawing on her own exhaustive research into Afro-Latin rituals and Taussig’s “first and second contact”, Romberg turns her post into a reflexive project<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">:</span> a fourth contact that acts as an embodied retelling with its own ethnographic and spiritual 'power'. </span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">MLA citation format:</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Romberg, Raquel,</span> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"The Magic of Mimesis: </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">A Historically Informed Anthropology of Sympathetic Magic and Contact"</span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">b</span>log <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">p</span>ost<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">.</span> <i>Material Religions</i><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><i>.</i> 16 March 2016. Web. [date of access]</span> </span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mimesis has acquired many meanings and has
been related to several theoretical genealogies in the last century. Variously
understood as copying, imitation, and replication, mimesis has entered into
debates in philosophy, the arts, developmental psychology, cultural studies,
consumerism, religion, spirit possession, and magic. Drawing on Aristotle’s
notion of mimesis, some have portrayed imitation as a basic human instinct and
one of the constitutive elements of poetry and the arts in general (Fergusson
1961:5). Within child-development perspectives, imitation has been theorized as
a basic form of learning. Within evolutionist biology, imitation has been
characterized as essential to the human condition—the main replicator being the
genes. In this line, Dawkins (1976: 192) suggests to call “meme” the new
replicator of cultural transmission (because it sounds like gene), and “memetics”
the copying of “skills, habits or behaviors from one person to another by
imitation work”; memes are, for example, “tunes, ideas, catch-phrases, clothes
fashions, ways of making pots or of building arches (quoted in Blackmore 2007:2-3).
Further, with the recent discovery of “mirror neurons” some psychologists such
as V.S. Ramachandran hope to revolutionize our understanding of human behavior
and the making of culture. In contrast, socio-cultural approaches to mimesis
have foregrounded its relation to human interaction, especially to power relations
and cultural difference in situations of (not just colonizing) contact. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Anthropologists
and folklorists agree in considering mirroring and mimesis as constitutive of
various types of individual and group experiences, from basic personal
socialization into a group, the development of a sense of self, the ability to
control unknown situations, the management of felt disempowerment, to the
acquisition of all sorts of cultural knowledge (Cantwell 1993, Jackson 1998,
Taussig 1993). Taussig (1993) develops the notions of first and second contact
in this regard in order to historicize the mimetic faculty as a political
framework that traces imitation between different groups, and its labor in
empowering some and disempowering others. [i] Very briefly, whereas “first
contact” refers to the initial mimetically mediated cultural misrecognition between
differentially empowered groups, say, aborigines and Europeans, “second or
reverse contact” refers to the unsettling recognition that the culture and
technology of one group has been imitated by another in creating new practices—such
as the creation of a new form of cricket, as in the documentary film Trobriand
Cricket (see Taussig 1993, and Kildea 1979). [ii] And of course, all this
mimicking and the recognition of this mimicking entails power moves in situations
of domination and exploitation. Within anthropological studies of magic and
witchcraft, the mimetic faculty acquires additional meanings as the principles
of similarity and contact (sympathetic magic, according to Frazer 1960 [1901]) enter
the practices and discourses of ritual, the making of magic works, and
possession. </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">As will become clear below, mimetic dramas and the creation of
similes inform divination, healing and cleansing rituals as well as magic works
performed during consultations at the home altars of Puerto Rican <i>brujos </i>(witch
healers) --with whom I worked intensely for more than a year. Based on this
research, I argue in <i>Healing Dramas</i> (2009) that such sensorial mimetic
dramas could be in themselves healing, for they promote a state of emotional
openness among clients (and spirits), necessary to initiate the healing
process. That is, when brujos in trance “mimic their clients’ bewitched bodies--and
occasionally the evil spirits that had caused them misfortune--unspoken and
painful feelings have a chance to surge,” spirits are forcefully cajoled to
leave their victims, “making visible (literally) the pain clients feel--and its
causes. This mirroring drama is powerful enough to motivate even the most
bewitched client (that is, one that has lost even the willpower to heal) to
stop being passive and, instead, to engage in some recommended proactive,
mending action, such as the performance of a cleansing ritual or retaliatory
magic work” (Romberg 2009:154).</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Before I move on, I wish to alert readers that
rather than being guided by an inclusive (and in my view futile) drive, this essay
selectively (and strategically) traces a few analytical frameworks of mimesis, particularly
those that have inspired my research about, but not limited to, the practices
of modern brujos in Puerto Rico. Crucial to the various directions in which I have
elaborated the notion of mimesis through the years has been Michael Taussig’s <i>Mimesis
and Alterity</i> (1993), especially the enticing ways he has made Walter Benjamin’s
“The Mimetic Faculty” (1999) and “The Doctrine of the Similar” (1979) speak to
anthropological reserach. Briefly, following Taussig via Benjamin, the mimetic
faculty is understood here as the historically determined capacity to produce
and recognize similarities: mimesis, as the capacity to copy, draw on the power
of the other, and become the other. [iii] For the purpose of mapping some interrelated
paths for the study of mimesis, I propose to look at mimesis in relation to colonial
and postcolonial encounters, magic and healing rituals, and the technologies of
mimesis in relation to ethnographic writing. </span></span></span></div>
<h2 style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"></span></h2>
<h2 style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><u><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>A. The Revenge of Mimetic Difference and Desire in Colonial and Postcolonial Contexts.</b></span></span></span></b></u></span></span></h2>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mimesis acquires a particular meaning in
colonial and postcolonial contexts. Resonating with W. E. B. Du Boisʼs notion
of “double consciousness,” some Caribbean researchers of the African diaspora suggest
that beyond the devaluation of the language of the colonized, the
internalization of the colonizers’ values created a colonial syndrome that made
them see themselves through the eyes of the colonizers, and thereby
self-deprecate, and negatively evaluate themselves and their behavior. One
could argue, following Homi Bhabha, that the imposition of European culture (as
part of the colonial project) entailed a double bind: at the same time a colonial
mandate to mimic and to interdict mimicking “white culture.” For the menace of
mimicry in colonial contexts, as Bhabha suggests, is its “double vision,” which
in disclosing the ambivalence of colonial discourse also disrupts its authority
(1994:88). Especially intriguing is the social price paid by white and colored
Creoles (i.e., born in the colonies) alike for being “like white” but for ever
remaining not “quite like white” (Bhabha 1994:86). </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In line with this defeatist notion, mimicry
signals for a number of postcolonial Caribbean intellectuals (such as V.S. Naipaul) the impossibility of colonial subjects ever engaging in a real
transformative action from a place that has not already been colonized. For
example, in Naipaul’s <i>Mimic Men</i> (1967), the main character, Ralph Singh,
expresses an inappropriate fascination with traits that he always finds in
English women, such as an innate imperial predatory greed that actually scares
him and makes him feel inadequate and ashamed (Galloway 1996). Acknowledging
this, Ralph reflects, “it seemed to me that to attach myself to her was to
acquire that protection which she offered, to share some of her quality of
being marked, a quality which once was mine but which I had lost” (Naipaul
1967:47). A similarly inappropriate, demeaning fascination with symbols and
gestures of power is vividly expressed in a completely different world re-created
in Jerzy Kosinskiʼs <i>The Painted Bird</i> (1965:119). The young protagonist,
a Jewish boy “who looks like a Gypsy,” manages to escape the Holocaust by
hiding in farms. About his frightening encounter with a German SS officer dressed
in full military grab, the boy reminisces: </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">He seemed an
example of neat perfection that could not be sullied: the smooth polished skin
of his face, the bright golden hair showing under his peaked cap, his pure
metal eyes. Every movement of his body seemed propelled by some tremendous
internal force. The granite sound of his language was ideally suited to order
the death of inferior, forlorn creatures. I was stung by a twinge of envy I had
never experienced before, and I admired the glittering deathʼs-head and
crossbones that embellished his tall cap. I thought how good it would be to
have such a gleaming and hairless skull instead of my Gypsy face which was
feared and disliked by decent people.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rene Girard’s theory of “mimetic desire”
could help untangle these apparent irrational dyadic forms of mimetic fascination
with the oppressors (Cottet 2000, Livingston 1992), and open the possibilities
for a tridimensional framework in which “mimetic desire” could mediate not one
but several directions of the cultural encounter. Indeed, as I mentioned
elsewhere (Romberg 2014), the sense of difference or exoticism may not only
mediate transcultural contact and inform local forms of knowledge about
colonial others, but also may feed in essentially witty forms of mimetic
possession in which the power of powerful Others is invoked, channeled, and
transgressed. For example, we learn from Paul Stoller’s (1995:90) evocative
rendition of the reality of possession that the enactment of white colonial
agents during Hauka spirit possession rituals are both frightening and funny;
they show that via mimesis whiteness could be mastered and thereby its ascribed
colonial power could be recruited. Referring to Hauka spirit possession as
“horrific comedy,” he further suggests that the embodiment of the Hauka not
only evoke the colonial past, but also “manipulate the present, and provoke the
future” (p. 7). [iv]</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Fritz Kramer’s (1993) discussion of the
mutual mimetic fascination of Europeans and non-Europeans, inspire Irene Albers
(2008) in portraying “exoticism” as a medium of non-scientific knowledge, as a
liberating form of visceral communication between cultures—not unlike the
embodiment of Europeans in ecstatic cults of non-Europeans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And yet, even if the mimetic faculty of
possession cults might be thought as connecting self and alters by means of the
ability to “yield into and become Other” (Taussig 1993: xiii), mimetic forms of
transcultural knowledge can also have deadly consequences. They can unleash
nightmares of representation and persecution, as illustrated keenly in <i>The
Convict and the Colonel</i> (Price 1998). [v]<sup> </sup>For some critical theorists of colonialism, the
colonized forever falls short for producing imperfect copies of the colonizers:
they “can never succeed in becoming identified with the colonizer, nor even in
copying his role correctly” (Memmi 1965:124). But this ambiguity and
impossibility acquire a different meaning within magic, where this imperfection
is constitutive of its technologies and excesses or surplus. I take this to be
one of the “wicked” sides of mimicry and the magic of imperfect copies.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Elsewhere I develop this idea further, linking the technologies
of magic to “ritual piracy” or the strategic, unauthorized appropriation of
symbols of power of powerful others for purposes other than those intended by
them, and which become empowering because of this very transgression (Romberg
2005, 2011a). Those who persecuted witches, sorcerers, and wild alters must
have “known” that magic worked through copies, even imperfect ones. (More on
ritual piracy, below.) </span></span></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure1A.jpg" height="400" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="298" /></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><style>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 107%;">Figure 1A: " </span><span lang="EN" style="line-height: 107%;">National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka -
Colon doll (military policeman) - Baule people in Ghana - Collected in 1996</span><span style="line-height: 107%;">", By
Yanajin33, CC BY-SA 3.0, via <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ANational_Museum_of_Ethnology%2C_Osaka_-_Colon_doll_%28military_policeman%29_-_Baule_people_in_Ghana_-_Collected_in_1996.jpg" target="_blank">Wikimedia Commons.</a></span></span></span></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure1B.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure1B.jpg" height="400" width="262" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; line-height: 107%;">Figure 1B: "Mbari figures of Amadiaoha and his wife (sometimes called Ala, the Earth deity) in the mbari to Ala at Umugote Orishaeze. Artists: Nnaji (left figure) and Ezem (right), 1966", By Herbert M. Cole, via <a href="https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/media/photos/show/847?back=topic-essays%2Fshow%2F15%3Fstart%3D1" target="_blank">Univ. of Iowa Museum of Art</a>.</span></span></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Visibly, Ivory-Coast Baule colon figurines
and Nigerian Igbo Mbari figurines mimic European colonists--Europeans have interpreted
them as “whimsical representations of themselves” (Saunders and Cornish 2014:93).
But for the Baule and Igbo, these figurines represent spirits that embody those
attributes of European culture that Baule and Igbo value and wish to channel
for themselves. This is what Rouch (1956, 1960, 1971) and Stoller (1995) noted
with respect to the Nigerian Hauka pantheon of spirits, some of which mimic and often mock European agents of power during possession.</span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> These forms of replication exemplify
the fascination with symbols of power and the wish to channel that power via mimesis. Paul Stoller, among others, has insisted on the
embodiment of opposition to colonial rule in West Africa. Some of this opposition has
taken place overtly by means of the rise of armed oppositions such as the Hauka
Movement in Niger; and other has occurred by means of cultural forms of embodied
resistance such as Igbo Mbari houses, Yoruba Egungun dancers, and Baule
"colonial" sculpture.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The
cases mentioned above show that cultural forms of emulation, replication, or
mimicry shouldn’t be seen as the product of a childish fascination with
powerful others that ends up in submission (as some have suggested), or the sign
of a lack of cultural authenticity, sincerity or charisma, as Western individualist
ideologies of modernity have assumed (Taylor 1989, 1991). Rather, mimicry might
in fact entail forms of cultural appropriation, forms of “<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">symbolic” or “ritual piracy”</span> (Romberg 2005, 2011a). </span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><u><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Mimesis and Ritual Piracy</span></u></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">As vernacular responses to hegemonic forces
through time (see Romberg 2003), <i>brujería </i>(witch healing) practices have
encompassed dominant symbols and gestures (of the Catholic Church, for
instance) often after decades and even centuries they had ceased to be
hegemonic. I have written extensively on ritual piracy (2005, 2011a), but I
wish to point here to its generative mimetic quality over time. By means of illicit
performative mimesis, or the imitation of hegemonic symbols and gestures on the
margins, <i>brujos</i> have resisted the exclusionary power of such symbols.
Therefore, rather than interpreting these forms of incorporation through
imitation as a form of submission (to economic, civil or religious hegemonies),
I have characterized them as forms of “ritual piracy” (Romberg 2005). In other
words, by means of these forms of vernacular piracy, symbols of power, which
had intended to exclude (and often vilify) the practices of brujería, are
appropriated and rechanneled via a form of “predatory” (Harney 2003) mimesis in
order to serve ritual and spiritual purposes foreign to the purposes driving their
imposition by the dominant culture in the first place. In this way, one can
say, vernacular religions such as brujería plunder the very powers that these
symbols embody, rechanneling them in the preparation of their magic works and
rituals. Via a kind of mimetic cunning, then, the spiritual power of the
Catholic Church that had been once monopolized by priests has been seized by brujos,
showing that those who had been vilified as evil at one-point end up appropriating
the very power that was meant to destroy them.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure2.jpg" height="400" width="308" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; line-height: 150%;">Figure 2: A magic
packet hanging from the cross. Photo by Raquel Romberg.</span></span></span></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Although I cannot
develop the relevance of this proposition here, I wish to note that it transcends
the area of vernacular religions and witchcraft--as has become clear from
research in the field of cultural studies, anthropology and literary criticism.
I am thinking about the work done by scholars who have analyzed the “game of
mirroring” (Bhabha 1994:85-92), and investigated mimesis and the mass reproduction
and distribution of commodities as essential aspects of the production of cultures
of so called “hybridity,” postcolonialism, diaspora and global modernities (see
Adams 1997, Kildea 1979, Vann 2006). [vi]</span></span></span></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Drawing on Adorno and Horkheimer’s historicization
of the notion of mimesis in relation to commodification and capitalist society,
Taussig points to the power of equivalences in commoditized societies: “Before,
the fetishes were subject to the law of equivalence. Now equivalence itself has
become a fetish” (Adorno and Horkheimer quoted in Taussig 1993: 45). Taussig
does not reference directly Braudrillard’s “simulacra” but I believe this is
the direction some culture-industry social theorists have taken with regard to
mimesis, particularly its “yielding” force. Seen as a “repressed presence” that
is “used as a hidden force” (Taussig 1993: 45) (to incite consumption, I
guess), the yielding force of equivalences (mimesis), which incites to look and
feel like those who consume certain commodities, seems to be driving, in this
kind of script, Western capitalist consumer societies. With a local cultural twist
and equipped with a related “cargo cult” framework, Jonathan Friedman (1994) cogently
invites us to examine this neomarxist idea with regard to the Congolese
“sapeurs.” Although he does not mention mimesis or equivalences directly,
Friedman explores the cosmological/identity significance of local practices of consumption
of Parisian brands of haut-couture items, such as those of Armani, that allow “sapeurs”
--poor, unemployed youth organized in La SAPE (<i>Société des Ambianceurs et
des Personnes Élégantes</i>--The Society of Ambiance-Makers and Elegant People)--to
tap into the power (life force), elegance, and prestige that Parisian haute
couture garments embody/carry. Unlike
magic works, the items have to be “authentic” not copied or faked brands in
order to affect their maximum power. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure3.jpg" height="400" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Figure 3: La Sape, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/sondolo/18955890034/" target="_blank">Image Credit</a></span></span></span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<h2 style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><u><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>B</b>. <b>Mimetic Chains and Magic</b></span></span></span></b></u></span></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">What I wish to argue here, following what I
showed in <i>Healing Dramas</i> (2009), <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>is that a persistent mimetic (and contagious) corporeality is readily
observable in divination, cleansing, and healing rituals, spirit possession,
and magic works; it is recognized in the multiple forms of manifestations of
the otherwise concealed world of spirits; it is, in sum, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>at the basis of the technologies of magic and
healing and essential to their ethics, affectivity, and effectiveness. And yet,
I warn, if one is to be true as much to the immediacy of ritual experiences
(Turner 1992) as to their indeterminacy and corporeality, a deconstruction of
these technologies for the purpose of analyzing them might have just the
reverse effect: creating the illusion of a neatly coherent system that would,
in fact, hinder the very experiential sensing of their ethics and affectivity
no less than their effectiveness. This is why, I insist, “something about the
multisensorial, intersubjective experience of ritual, as in other fieldwork
experiences, is thus disappointingly irrecoverable in spite of one’s
best-intended attempts in contextual maneuvering and textual evocation”
(Romberg 2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">It is through the framework of mimetic
corporeality and discourse that I have tackled an otherwise incongruous
practice found in brujería rituals (as in other recently creolized religions):
brujos incorporate the liturgical symbols, words, and paraphernalia of
Catholicism and adopt the role and demeanor of priests (see Romberg 2003, 2005,
2011a). This practice suggests, on the one hand, the continual pervasiveness of
a Catholic ethos in Puerto Rico; and, on the other, the ambivalent attitude of
brujos<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>toward Catholicism. It would be
historically naive to gloss over the long-term effect of Catholicism and
Christianity in Puerto Rico, as they were used as folk synonyms for personhood
and civility. After centuries of persecution by the church and in spite of an
essentially antiecclesiastical attitude toward religion, Puerto Rican brujos
still find the need to appropriate its symbols and gestures, albeit often for spiritual
and healing purposes other than those established by the church. It seems that
through the imitation of Catholic gestures and signs brujos can seize on the
transcendental powers embodied in the church and transfer them by means of a
"rupture and revenge of signification" (Taussig 1987:5) to their own
practices (Romberg 2005). </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ironically, by virtue of the very system of
imitation that had been in place in accordance with the church's own devotional
teachings, the gates to the realm of miraculous occurrences had been opened
wide to an eagerly devout public ever since the earliest days of colonization. I
am thinking about practices related to <i>Imitatio Christi</i> (The Imitation
of Christ) a fifteenth-century devotional book ascribed to Thomas à Kempis that
instructed how to lead a pious life modelled after the life and deeds of Jesus--in
line with the religious reform movement of Devotio Moderna (Modern Devotion). Influential
ever since, it proposes the emulation of the life of Christ as a way to achieve
a personal, direct spiritual unity with Christ. The Catholic notion of
salvation and sanctity achieved through mimesis has become part and parcel of
the ways in which brujos relate to their profession. The idea of sacred mimesis
appears in discourse through aphorisms, proverbs, and stories of the life of
Christ, as well as in action, through healing performances that emulate those
of Jesus and thus are framed as "miraculous" acts of mercy and
charity (Romberg 2003). Today one can observe the limitless unintended-effects
of this ethos of sacred mimesis in a number of vernacular religious practices, which
promote the imitation of the life of Jesus and the spiritual legitimacy that
follows from it. [vii] Consider the miracles, apparitions, altars, and
sacraments sanctioned by the Catholic Church and all the vernacular replicas of
them in private home-altars of healers throughout the Americas (cf. Romberg
2003, 2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure_4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure_4.jpg" height="182" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Figure<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> 4</span>: Haydee praying in a chapel and in her altar room. Photos by Raquel Romberg.</span></span></span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A few ethnographic vignettes will vividly convey
this idea further. Bolina, a Puerto Rican bruja (witch healer) living in Loíza
(one of the most Afro-Puerto Rican cities in Puerto Rico) told me in our
conversations that plastic prostheses had been inserted in both of her knees
for more than a decade. The doctor had told her she would have to walk with
crutches the rest of her life. Devoting herself and praying to San Lázaro
(always depicted on crutches and with a dog licking his wounds), she promised
him that if she got better she would remove his crutches, i.e., literally remove the crutches from this santo's plaster figurine </span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
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. "<i>Y así fue</i>" (And so it happened),
Bolina said. In all the years she had waited to be healed she had "walked
barefoot, as a penitent," everywhere. The trope "I walked
barefoot" was used often by several other brujos in order to index the humility
and sacrifice involved in their <i>obra espiritual</i>--apparently a collective
image that resonates in Puerto Rico with the image of Jesus walking barefoot on
his way to be crucified. It is as if, mimetically, by "walking
barefoot" Bolina had relived his torment, and connected to the mimetic
chains of resemblance that eventually induced such a miraculous outcome. Today
she walks without crutches, and the San Lázaro she keeps in her altar stands
without his usual crutches. [viii] Another case of sacred mimesis I documented widely is that of
Haydée, a bruja, who said “I eat while I heal, like Jesus”--as she ate her lunch
while applying compresses over the ulcerated leg of one of her clients (see
Romberg 2003: 120-122). </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure_5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure_5.jpg" height="282" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; line-height: 150%;">Figure 5: “I eat
while I heal, like Jesus”. Photo by Raquel Romberg.</span></span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">On another occasion, Haydée travelled through the sinuous mountain chain
traversing the island from East to West for about three hours in order </span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">to
heal the aging mother of one of her clients</span></span></span>. She persisted driving in spite of a sudden, unusual, and dangerous hailstorm. Drawing a parallel between
the teachings and healing journeys of Jesus, Haydée figured her dangerous journey
through the mountains as a personal act of charity modelled after Jesus’s deeds,
and the hail water she had gathered during the trip as blessed water. Seeing the healing
effects of the rituals she had performed with the blessed water in the house of
this sad and feeble old woman, Haydée delivered an emotional homily on the duty
of offspring to make sacrifices for their aging parents. It was constructed as
a mystical moment, infused with layers of religious significance: "as if
one of Jesus's healing miracles had come to life in the present through a
mimetic performance" that connected that mythical elsewhere with this healing journey (see Romberg 2003: 122-125). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><u><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Spirit Possession and Somatic Mimesis </span></u></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">As mentioned in my piece on spirit
possession and discourse (Romberg 2014), some work on spirit possession
rituals has taken a challenging perspective on the mimetic moments of colonial
encounters, showing the rather dialogic, tridimensional nature of colonial
contact. Far from being the exclusive domain of Europeans, the fascination with
and fear of Others is seen as reciprocal and reflecting (cf. Fritz Kramer 1993,
Michael Taussig 1993, and Paul Stoller 1995).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Many have noted the visceral theatricality of possession, particularly the
mimetic dramas by means of which colonial generals, medical doctors, and
governors, for example, possess the bodies of ritual participants. Undoubtedly,
the domination and exploitation of colonial encounters (as well as the desires
to possesses and control the power of colonizers) provided the stage and the
characters that were enacted in what Paul Stoller aptly characterized as
tragic-comic mimetic theaters of possession (Stoller 1995). As a form of
practical mimesis, such mimetic dramas offer a glance into an otherwise
silenced history from below (Stoller 1997). </span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spirit presence during possession rituals
may take many forms and meanings. Sometimes the possessing spirit is visibly
there in the manner the medium acts and speaks. At other times possession is
subtle and is only noticed when the medium conveys the messages the spirits are
sending to clients during divination, cleansing, or healing rituals. But
recognition of who the possessing spirit is depends on culturally defined
mimetic cues, such as the voice, demeanor, personality, and ways of speaking of
the spirit. </span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Being possessed by spirits, especially evil
spirits and <i>muertos</i> (spirits of the recently dead), is seen as the ultimate sign of sacrifice and charity of a
healer. Brujos always mention the heavy price they pay for this in terms of
their health and family relations. In cases of exorcisms, when the medium
becomes possessed by the evil spirit that have been sent to harm a client, an
unmistakably extreme form of somatic mimesis and sacrifice by proxy on the part
of brujos occurs, by means of which the healer’s body intercedes in order to restore
the well-being of the victim. A milder form of intervention no less motivated
by sacrifice comes about when a healer senses in his or her body the exact pain
and location produced by a bewitchment that had been intended for a client. In
these cases, by means of somatic mimesis, “healers not only embody the actual
pain, suffering, and bewitchments experienced by their clients”; they also
mirror their clients’ pain. Healers and clients thereby become connected by
means of somatic mimesis, which in this case allows for the materialization of the intangible messages spirits hold for people (see Romberg 2009:198-209). [ix] </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">For instance, in consultation with
Dania, a young woman in her mid-twenties, Haydée began the session stating, “You
are not working yet--you haven’t gotten a job yet, right? And what about the
woman who was driving you crazy?” And then, while her upper body trembled,
Haydée cried, “Uy, I have chills! Your leg hurts you, right? This is how I felt
it, like an electric shock (<i>correntazo</i>)--like an electric flow that
kicks you backwards. This is how you feel? How long have you felt this way? The
woman asserted that indeed she “felt paralyzed for no apparent reason” over the
last few days, and this is what drove her to come for a consultation (2009:
200). During the several months I worked with Haydée, she often complained that
some of her aches and pains were caused by “the bad energies” that her clients
brought with them to the altar-room, noting, “This ache is not mine--it’s [followed
by the name of the client]. In these case she would take pills or put ice cubes
on her forehead and neck. [x] In general, as I mentioned at the beginning of
this essay, when the words of the spirits, voiced but not authored by brujos, replicate
the unspoken state of mind and feelings of the victim of bewitchment, a
healing, cathartic moment usually follows, for these might have been the exact words and feelings the victim was thinking about. Such visceral ways of having
one’s state of mind and mood mimetically revealed might seem to open or “jumpstart” the process of healing, in </span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Desjarlais' (1996: 160) apt term</span></span></span>. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
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</span></span></span></span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<u><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Chains of Correspondences of Similarity and Contact</span></span></u></div>
</span></span></span></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Most institutionalized religions have
ritualized ways of naturalizing the idea of the immateriality of matter. Take,
for example, the transubstantiation during mass of the wafer and the wine into
the body and blood of Christ. The same holds true, even if it has not been
naturalized, for conceiving the cosmic chains of similarity and contact that
tie together things with certain attributes and feelings, and names with their
effects </span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">as in Puerto Rican brujería and similar vernacular
religions</span></span></span> (Romberg 2009). The following vignettes will illustrate this point. </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tonio, a very old brujo from Loíza I met
when he was near ninety, was known as “The Number One Witch Healer of Loíza.”
He knew the whereabouts of healing plants and animals in every niche and mound
of Puerto Rico. In our conversations he used to recall hundreds of names of
families and individuals he had helped out in Loíza, other neighborhoods all
over the Island, and in several parts of the U.S. mainland. Such memories
elicited other embodied memories of magic works and rituals he used to perform
when he was younger and abler. “The recitation of places evokes also the names
of specific healing and magical plants that grow only in one of those
places--on a certain mountaintop, for instance, or on the bank of a certain
river. The names of healing plants trigger, in turn, their effects, the <i>llantén</i>
(a broad-leaf plantain, <i>Plantaginaceae</i>), for example, produces <i>llanto
</i>(tears). The natural effects of plants anticipate, finally, their spiritual
effects: the effervescence of the <i>mabí </i>(soldierwood, <i>colubrina</i>
<i>reclinata</i>) produces renewed energy.” This was one of my first lessons in
the cosmic chain of mimesis. People, plants, and plants’ desired effects on
people--as Sir James Frazer (1960 [1922]) may have phrased it--are magically
connected by various types of resemblance and contact. As parts of a whole they
are cosmically connected by physical, metaphoric, semantic, and emotional similarity
and proximity. “Plants and their healing and magical effects also are connected
to humans by the principle of similarity: the degree of resemblance and
correspondence between the sounds and meaning of words and their referents,
that is, a linguistic similarity semantically connects plants and human
emotions. A personal name that is part of a location; a location that contains
a plant; and a plant whose signifier and some of its attributes denote its
magical effects on human emotions, are all looped in chains of similarity and
contact” (Romberg 2009, 2011b).</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
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</span></span></span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<u><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Imperfect Copies Work </span></span></b></u></div>
</span></span></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Even imperfect copies, as Taussig (1993:17)
reminds us, are effective in acquiring the power of the original, in
appropriating the essence of the object represented. That is, resemblance and
replication need not be exact (as in realist paintings) for the magic of
mimesis to work. Paul Stoller (1997:12-13) tells us that the sorcerer knows
that while the arrow he shoots--carrying sickness to a rival--may fall idle on
the floor, the “inside arrow” flies, if the sorcerer’s aim is good, above the
sky to meet its target. The shooting light that the rationalist Edward
Evans-Pritchard (1976 [1937]:11) reported seeing in the middle of the night and
interpreted as a bonfire, might have been, Stoller suggests, the “fire” of
witchcraft (as the natives later assured Evans-Pritchard), an “emanation” of
the witch’s body, dispatched to cause death to an unsuspecting victim in a
nearby compound (1997:12-13).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That is
how magic seems to work: outwardly imperfect copies may carry the inwardly perfect
copy (Romberg 2009).</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Magic is in the details of correspondences
and substitutes, even if imperfectly related. After documenting and following
closely the making of trabajos for more than a year, I learned about the
various techniques upon which magic depends and the ways in which its purposes
are carefully engineered in choosing the materials and the spatial arrangements
between them. Like a spoken language, they depend on synonymic, syntagmatic, synecdochic,
or more generally metaphoric relations between ingredients and their similes
and substitutes. This indeterminate elasticity is fascinating to me. More
importantly, this elasticity becomes extremely handy and a way of survival in
times of migration. [xi] </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In cases of bad luck and extreme poverty this
mimetic language is used to expresses the effects of misfortune. Being
<i>salá </i>or <i>tumb</i>á (disgraced
through black magic) means that everything one touches <i>se vuelve sal y agua</i>
(turns to salt and water), one has <i>los pies y las manos atadas</i> (one's
feet and hands tied), one <i>está envuelto</i> (is wrapped) or <i>lo tienen puesto
en una caja </i>(has been placed in a coffin). These expressions refer to magic
works designed to obstruct or ruin a person by means of tying a string around
the extremities and body of a wax or cloth figure representing the victim,
throwing an effigy of the victim into the sea after the former has been wrapped
with a spool of black thread, or burying the victim's photograph or effigy in a
small replica of a coffin. Following the same mimetic logic, the passivity of
the bewitched might be "untied" by the flight of a dove, their minds
(<i>mente</i>) "cleared" with mint (<i>menta</i>), and their personal
attraction "recharged" with lodestone. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure_6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure_6.jpg" height="356" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; line-height: 150%;">Figure 6: Loadstone is used in magic works to attract or repel people. Photo by Raquel Romberg.</span></span></span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure7.jpg" height="201" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; line-height: 150%;">Figure 7: Haydee setting free a dove, Dania’s proxy, to unbewitch her. Photos by Raquel Romberg.</span></span></span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/03/romberg/Figure8.jpg" height="400" width="271" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; line-height: 150%;">Figure 8: Magic work that puts one’s enemies (their proxies) “back to back” to alienate them.
Photo by Raquel Romberg.</span></span></span></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; line-height: 150%;">Figure 9: A “wedding cake” is “cooked” with honey and
cinnamon to promote the unity of a couple. Photos by Raquel Romberg.</span></span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Various sets of homologies are magically
exploited in all these <i>trabajos</i> (magic works). The words <i>menta</i> (mint) and <i>mente </i>(mind)
connect mimetically the magic work and its effect. Likewise, the magnetic
properties of lodestone, via the mimetic faculty, "attract" or
“repel” the people who are the object of the magic work. Thanks to the virtues
of magical mimesis--semantic, onomatopoeic, sensual--the sexual energies of
estranged spouses as well as relationships with one's children can be nourished
with honey and perfumes, their respective paths "cleared" and
reunited after the "doors" that lead to each another have been
"unlocked" with the aid of miniature keys. The love between a couple
can be "guarded" forever by offering a luscious wedding
cake--previously "cooked" by a brujo or bruja--to the deities of love
that inhabit the Yunque (Romberg 2009). </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<h2 style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><u><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>C</b>. <b>The Magic of Technologies of Reproduction and Mimetic Representations</b></span></span></span></b></u></span></span></h2>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">I wrote the following in the introduction to my book </span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><i>Healing Dramas </i></span></span>in order to explain why I
took so many photos in the field and why I published such a large amount of
them</span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">: </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“As an
anthropologist I knew how powerful photographs might be in magical
manipulations, how people often avoided being photographed for fear that
sorcerers would steal their images. But now I am also reminded by Michael
Taussig’s (1993) masterful relational account of mimesis and alterity, of the
fascination of the white man with the fascination of "natives" being
photographed and recorded, and I cannot avoid reflecting on my own fascination
with Haydée’s fascination, not fear, of being photographed and recorded. Here I
was not just allowed but encouraged to play a part in a "mimetological
theatre" (Taussig 1993:191) as a <i>reportera</i>, where I was entrusted
with the image and voice of the main character played by Haydée because of her
own mimetic self-awareness. She knew that being famous means being
photographed. This mimetic excess--the result of "second contact," in
Taussig’s (1993b:247) term--engulfed me, as a <i>reportera</i>, in the magic of
what may be a "third contact" [this book]. Shooting more pictures than
I could ever reproduce, I nonetheless took them. And as with any surplus, I am
still puzzled by their secret power as I glance through them, pondering about
which will be published and which not.</span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Michael Taussig (1993) has reflected on these issues in <i>Mimesis and
Alterity</i>, characterizing ethnography as “Embodied Retelling”: if
ethnographies <i>instantiate</i>, or make <i>concrete</i>, they illustrate the
magic of mimesis wherein the replication, the copy, acquires the power of the
represented. Are readers of these examples thereby “lifted out of [themselves]
into these images?” (16). Just as witches and shamans capture and create power
by making models (copies) of agents and objects of social power, so do
ethnographies when they set to “model” realities in writing. Making an analogy
between ethnographic writing and the magician’s art of reproduction with the
intention of estranging writing itself, Taussig further puzzles over the
ethnographer’s model: “If it works, [the model] gains through its sensuous
fidelity something of the power and personality of that of which it is a
model,” showing “the capacity of the imagination to be lifted through
representational media, such as marks on a page, into other worlds” (16).
Comparatively, for shamans and witches the mimetic faculty is used “to capture
that very same spirit power” of the original, while for ethnographers it is
employed to graph the essence of the ethnos (the group). Yet in the latter form
of copying reality, Taussig suggests, “the stakes are no less important” than
for the former (17)." </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">And, by way of conclusion, here is my
explanation of why I included this extended quote and fieldwork photos in this post: </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“One of the most
memorable self-revealing times I shared with Haydée was our looking together at
the album of photos I took of her, a reflexive experience comparable only to
our listening to the tapes I had recorded of her work. Certain photos attracted
her attention more than others and were the object of extensive comments, which
she often shared not just with me but also with her friends, kin, and select
clients” (2009: 188-189). Looking at the album, she noted, 'Look, how I’m
holding her by the crown!' –she was referring to the way she held the crown of
her patron saint, La Caridad del Cobre, and the way she was spiritually
connected to her." </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Continuing my
fascination with the fascination with mimesis, I offer bits of replicas of
past renditions of other replicas as parts of my post here, wondering what
could be the ethnographic and spiritual power (if any) of this last “embodied
retelling” perhaps as a form of… fourth contact. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><b><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Endnotes</span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[i] In this regard, see the
historical-folkloric analysis of Roger Abrahams (1995, 2006) of American colonists
“playing Indian.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[ii] For more on the mimetic faculty in
relation to the senses, see the blog by Mike Mowbray at
http://sixthsensereader.org/about-the-book/abcderium-index/mimetic-faculty/</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[iii] Some of the controversies surrounding
this anthropological masterpiece can be found in Jay (1993), Stoller (1994),
and Taussig (1994).</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[iv] For a visual rendition of this
“horrific theatre,” see Jean Rouch’s Les Maîtres Fous (1956).</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[v] I’m inspired by Taussig’s (1993)
insightful sections on the notion of imperfect copies and copies that are not
copies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[vi] See Taussig’s (1993) analysis of
Trobriand Cricket, as an instance of first contact, and the giggling of Western
audiences at certain points of the documentary as examples of second contact.
In her astute analysis of mimesis and alterity among the Sherpas, Vincanne
Adams (1997:89) shows that the Sherpas' fascination with wearing "Nike
hiking boots, Patagonia mountain jackets, and Vuarnet glacier glasses" are
markers of their "Sherpaness." Rather than being the “evidence of
commodified subjectivity" and loss of authenticity, this form of mimesis
“resonates with Sherpa Buddhism and even shamanism."</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[vii] This is also true for Vodou and
Candomblé (see Romberg 2005, 2011a).</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[viii] For more on Bolina and the sacrifices
she and other healers make following the idea of sacred mimesis in order to
increase their healing powers, see Romberg 2003). On sacred mimesis and the
power of brujos to heal, see Romberg (2009).</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[ix] Somatic mimesis can be identified in
situations of medical practices and psychological transference. Drawing on
Valentine Daniel’s research of Siddha medicine in South Asia, Csordas notes
that physicians coordinate pulses with their patients, “making their own pulse
‘confluent and concordant’ with that of their patients” (1993:143). Some
psychotherapeutic schools see counter transference (or the sensing of a
patient’s psychological conflicts by the therapist) as a “physical, actual,
material, sensual expression in the analyst of something in the patient’s
psyche” (Samuels 1985, quoted in Csordas 1993:144) rather than as a
pathological reaction of the therapist, as traditional theories of
countertransference suggest (145).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[x] For more about the way the bodies of
brujos act as divination tools, see Romberg (2009).</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xi] David Brown (1999), for example, notes
that magic works that were meant to be placed by a stream of water by Santeria
devotees are now placed in the bathroom near water pipes by devotees living in
high rise buildings in the United States.</span></span></span></div>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: #444444;"><b><br /></b></span></span>
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-6219813068995093812016-02-23T20:12:00.000-08:002016-02-23T20:21:43.109-08:00Virtual Buddhist Monk Robes: Cyborgs, Gender, and the Self-Fashioning of a Mindful Second Life Resident<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/gregory-grieve.html" target="_blank">Gregory Grieve</a> studies virtual clothing in Hoben, a Second Life Zen community. He argues that Second Life residents emerge from their virtual practices where the ability to choose one’s gender, clothing and appearance increases mindfulness and offers a creative alternative to conventional heteronormative roles on both a political and spiritual level.</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">MLA citation format: </span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Grieve, Gregory Price "Virtual Buddhist Monk Robes: </span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Cyborgs, Gender, and the Self-Fashioning of a Mindful Second Life Resident" </span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web blog post. Material Religions. </span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">24 February</span> 2016. Web. [date of access]</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dzfhCfVJscAxyBtQdNzlr3tcJCyVT51WfhzKQWxgLlUvQVPMstdbM4gwAxKYkIsFj1AYsHiFoaUWy6j4RUfKg' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;">On February 23, 2010, I logged onto the virtual world of Second Life and discovered that free virtual monk robes were being distributed at the Hoben Mountain Zen Retreat. As I describe in my book, Cyber Zen [i], Hoben is a Convert Zen Buddhist community that practices in Second Life, a three-dimensional, immersive, and interactive virtual world housed in cyberspace and accessed via the Internet [ii]. Often labeled Western, Nightstand, or Convert Buddhists, residents of Hoben typically engage from North America, Europe, or other parts of the developed world, but can also be found in many cosmopolitan centers of developing nations. Convert Buddhism is a diverse and flexible religion, but it tends to focus on several facets of the tradition: the therapeutic, the non-hierarchical, the non-violent, the ecological, and, most importantly, the meditative.
<insert 1="" figure=""> </insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/02/grieve/figure1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/02/grieve/figure1.jpg" height="400" width="346" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;">Female Avatar Wearing Virtual Monk Robes (Second Life Snapshot by Gregory Grieve).</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure="">On the day in question, free virtual Buddhist monk robes <i>(kāṣāya)</i> had just been made available, and a group of male avatars were helping a female avatar, Algama GossipGirl, edit the robes so they would fit. As a default, the robes had been made to fit male avatars; however, I found that they tended to be mostly modified and worn by female avatars. </insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/02/grieve/BlockQuote1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/02/grieve/BlockQuote1.jpg" height="235" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;">Transcript of conversation at Hoben Mountain Zen Retreat (February 23, 2010).</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote="">Beyond the general question of “Why bother with virtual monk robes?”, this blog post asks, “Why do female avatars tend to don them?” One might argue that because virtual robes lack physicality, they are unreal – a judgment that may be especially true for objects of fashion, which are often dismissed as frivolous. I argue, however, that for many female avatars, the Buddhist robes play an important part in fashioning online selves that are both politically and spiritually liberating. As this post illustrates, the robes are significant for material religion because they help one understand the relationship between gender, spirituality, and self-fashioning. </insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><b>Virtual Monk Robes</b> </insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote="">Oftentimes, clothing is reduced to need, and, as naked apes, human beings undoubtedly seek cover from the elements. Fashion emerges, however, not from the function clothes perform but from what those clothes mean to the wearer and to society as a whole. Particularly in contemporary consumer society, fashion has more to do with provoking desire and marking distinction than with physical necessity. One might assume that fashion is just added adornment and is therefore not worthy of serious analysis; however, because desire often outstrips need in contemporary culture, fashion is not considered superfluous at all. In fact, for many consumers, fashion is indispensable if one wants to be viewed as an accepted member of society. </insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote="">Although merely pixels on a screen, fashion in Second Life reflects a crucial aspect of everyday life in the virtual world. My research revealed that Second Life lacked the fixed ranks and status of traditional societies, and therefore fashion emerged as the central focus of many residents. For residents, shopping was not an added, but rather an essential, part of their virtual world experience. When I asked whether she shopped in Second Life, resident Algama GossipGirl ironically responded, “I buy there for my avatar is.”
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/02/grieve/figure2.jpg" height="400" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="285" /></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;">Free Buddhist monk Robes from Hoben Mountain Zen Retreat. (Second Life snapshot by Gregory Grieve).</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure="">From Jesus baseball caps and yarmulkes, to Yoga pants and angel wings, the centrality of self-fabrication was also true for many Second Life religious groups. Interestingly, however, even more than other traditions in Second Life, dress played a key role in Convert Zen Buddhism. This may come as no surprise, for monk robes have always played a crucial role in Buddhist practice. In his classic article, <a href="http://www.persee.fr/doc/asie_0766-1177_1995_num_8_1_1101" target="_blank">“Quand l'habit fait le moine”</a> (or “When the Clothes Make the Man”), the Buddhologist Bernard Faure writes, “The monastic garment became the symbol par excellence of the Dharma, outperforming other symbols and relics, and occupying a prominent place in the Buddhist imaginary.” [iii] </insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure="">The free robes handed out in February 2010 were created by the talented builder Ryusho Ort, and were based on his popular “Soto So-Fuku” robes, which he described as “Japanese Soto monk kesa (robes). Also applicable for Chinese and Korean Traditions.” Following some twenty-five centuries of custom, which had traveled from India and been adapted as Buddhism spread throughout Asia, Ryusho’s robes consisted of the “triple robe” style: a lower covering <i>(antarvāsa)</i> made of a skirt and pants, an upper covering <i>(uttarāsaṇga)</i> made of a shirt, and an outer robe <i>(saṃghāti)</i> made of a jacket and <i>flexi </i>attachments. In Second Life, skirts, pants, shirts, and jackets describe different layer-based textured clothing that can be applied directly to a user’s avatar. Flexi attachments are <i>prims </i>(primitives) that are set to “flex” so that they mimic the physical movement of cloth; for example, shirttails blowing in the wind. </insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><b>Self-Fashioning</b> </insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lila_Abu-Lughod" target="_blank">Lila Abu-Lughod</a>, professor of anthropology and women's and gender studies, writes, "The self is always a construction, never a natural or found entity." [iv] Selves are fashioned, and virtual worlds make self-fashioning more conspicuous because there is no physical world referent and ultimately selves are mere media practices. In Second Life, selves do not stem from a fixed body, but are rather constructed through repeated media practices that are renewed, revised, and consolidated through time. Selves are never created of whole cloth, nor do they exist under complete conscious or rational control. Similar to a half-improvised script, virtual world selves are templates, erected through repeated interactions, which sanction acceptable behaviors on behalf of Second Life societal norms. </insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><b>Residents</b> </insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure="">In the early stages of my research, I had completed one of my first meditation sessions and sat impatiently waiting for the customary follow-up discussion. I watched as the other practitioners began to rouse themselves from their digital slumber, their avatars suddenly beginning to stir as each user returned his or her fingers to keyboards. Much to my surprise, one of the first questions the leader directed towards the group was the rather ambiguous, “Who are you?” In real life, this seems a simple enough question to answer; in Second Life, it proved much more difficult. Was I the user, the avatar, or some fusion of the two? I also began to wonder out of which materials selves are fashioned. Am I my thoughts? My words and actions? What about possessions and relationships? Do virtual objects and fashion count? As the American philosopher and psychologist William James writes in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Principles_of_Psychology" target="_blank"><i>The Principles of Psychology</i></a>, “Between what a man calls me and what he simply calls mine the line is difficult to draw.” [v] </insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure="">Second Life residents do not exist before users log on, but rather emerge from Second Life media practices. Employed throughout the platform and within the surrounding <i>SLogosphere</i>, instead of the term “player,” <i>resident</i> is “meant to give users a feeling of ‘belonging’ and ownership of the virtual world.” [vi] The word “resident” was used almost from the inception of Second Life. The expression can be observed as far back as 2003 in the beta testing website, which states, “Residents of Second Life will face a host of choices daily . . . [in this] multi-layered boundless universe that is constantly changed by - and constantly changes - its inhabitants.” [vii] </insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure="">As the website “Create Your Avatar” shows, when residents initially log on to Second Life, the first thing they do is use the virtual world’s media practices to fashion themselves. [viii] All new residents choose a default avatar when they first sign up for Second Life, but may modify the avatar depending on their imagination, editing skills, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Second_Life" target="_blank">Linden dollars</a>. Residents can choose to be either male or female with the click of a few buttons, and can also change their appearance by wearing different shapes and skins. </insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure="">Our research found that residents could purchase or find many shapes and skins, as well as customize avatars through the “Appearance” menu. Skins wrap around the avatar’s wire mesh, and, like shapes, could be purchased, found, or created. Avatars’ hair and eyes could also be customized. In later iterations of the Second Life viewer, users could also change their avatar’s physics, customizing the way their avatar's breasts, belly, and butt bounced and swayed. Residents could also change their appearance by finding, purchasing, or designing clothing. In Second Life, seemingly infinite styles of clothing could be obtained and worn with just a few clicks of a mouse. </insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><b>Resident as Cyborg</b>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/02/grieve/figure3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/02/grieve/figure3.jpg" height="292" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;">Resident as cyborg, hybrid feedback loops of machine and biologic organisms, composed of user and avatar (Drawing by Greg Grieve).</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure="">Studies of online subjectivity frequently frame analyses around dystopic lamentations over the loss of an essential coherent modern self or, conversely, present a utopic hagiography praising the liberating potential of constructed postmodern fluid identities. Compare, for instance, scholar of science and technology Sherry Turkle’s latest work, <a href="http://www.alonetogetherbook.com/" target="_blank"><i>Alone Together</i></a>, to her earlier work, <a href="http://books.simonandschuster.com/Life-on-the-Screen/Sherry-Turkle/9780684833484" target="_blank"><i>Life on the Screen</i></a>. [viii] Neither of these publications adequately described the everyday reality that we came across in Second Life. To provide a more accurate account, I used Second Life’s search engine filter of “people” to locate residents, a term which describes cybersocial beings that are activated in the virtual world via feedback between user and avatar. Users are the flesh-and-blood individuals behind the screens, while avatars are the virtual rendering of that user within the virtual world. Rather than emphasize the real world or virtual world, I recognize residents as “cyborgs,” hybrid systems of machine and biologic organisms. </insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure="">Virtual Gender </insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure="">The cyborg model of online self illustrates how Second Life media practices are used to fashion alternative residents through a careful cultivation of shapes, skins, and virtual dress. To analyze such alternative self-fashioning, I employ the category of gender, which is regarded on Second Life not as a natural phenomenon, but as the materialized interaction between a user’s desire, agency, and social norms. My goal is to not simply add to the ample literature on gender and online identity, but to use the category of gender to explore how residents fashion selves that are products of, and alternatives to, the norms of contemporary society. </insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure="">My analysis was complicated, however, when it became evident that the aforementioned resident, Algama, was “gender-swapping.” A scholar of online community and identity, Amy Bruckman refers to gender-swapping as “the ability to pretend to be the opposite gender,” and notes that “in these virtual worlds, the way gender structures basic human interaction is often noticed and reflected upon.” [ix] Gender-swapping is an ethical issue, often falling into a dichotomy between those who see it as immoral, and those who praise it as an emancipating media practice. </insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure="">I personally maintain that material religion cannot adjudge universal moral judgments about gender-swapping, and should instead focus on the subtle, ingrained tactics of its everyday use. Using Algama’s donning of Buddhist robes as a touchstone, I conclude that Second Life Convert Zen residents follow mindful media practices that entangle users and avatars. In a mindful approach, authenticity lies neither solely with the avatar nor with the user, but rather in the awareness of the interplay between Second Life and real life. As Buddhist resident Yidam Roads said on May 22, 2009, “If you change avatars especially, I think it can help you explore different facets of personal identity and perhaps hold your identification with ‘self’ more lightly.” </insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><b>Heteronormative Identities and Culture Jamming</b> </insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure="">When I first logged on to Second Life, I naively assumed that I would face no gender complications since I had been freed from my physical body. When a user is able to fashion any body of their choosing, Second Life might seem to confirm a voluntarist, even rational, theory of gender invention. One does not have a gender in Second Life; rather, one constructs gender through media practices, creating fantasies that bridge what is desired with what is possible. It might seem that the embodied “I” somehow precedes the avatar; however, avatars, like real bodies, are actually constrained and controlled by cultural norms, conventions, and laws. For instance, during our research, sitting residents were usually given a choice of clicking on a blue poseball for male characters or a pink one for female characters. Poseballs are common scripted objects that usually appear as round, colored spheres and affix an animation to the avatar that clicks on them. If an avatar clicked on a blue poseball, it would sit “like a male.” If one clicked on the pink ball, it would sit “like a female.”
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/02/grieve/figure4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/02/grieve/figure4.jpg" height="246" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;">Second Life Pose Balls (Second Life snapshot by Gregory Grieve).</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure="">Cyberspace has often been regarded as a place where gender and sexual identities can be performed in liberating ways. Most residents engage in a cisgender relationship, where the user identity matches that of the avatar. Second Life residents can, however, “jam” these enforced heteronormative identities, and during the time of our research we ran across some very transgressive examples. “Culture jamming” is a communications tactic that disrupts dominant messages through alternatives, which often parody the mainstream. For example, Algama GossipGirl described herself as a “sissy girl,” going on to say, “It fits me better than any other term. A ‘girl’ is feminine, soft, beautiful, young, like, wow, and free. A ‘sissy’ isn’t male or masculine, mostly, but it implies that I am not female in real life.”</insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><b>Mindfulness</b> </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure="">Convert Zen Buddhists jam the norms of network consumer society through mindfulness, a practice that cultivates a calm awareness of one's body functions, feelings, content of consciousness, and consciousness itself. The mindful tactic sees ultimate reality as empty, an important aspect of which is the impermanent nature of the self <i>(anātman)</i>. The mindful spiritual path lay neither in the real life user nor in the virtual avatar, but rather in an awareness of the interplay between the two. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure="">After a Dharma talk, I asked Skeptical Starshine, “Would you say you see your avatar as a mask, a reflection of a Real Life self, or as a projection of an inner self?” She answered, “At different times it is any of those things. Just like the self I project into the world via flesh.” In response to the same question, gender-swapping resident Algama said, “I am both in real life, and Second Life, meat and pixels its all me, its all me,” while Ashley Lee replied, “Mostly I just take classes, make things, garden, and make friends.” After a long pause, she added: “Not a mask, for sure. Both my real life and Second Life mes are me.” Encouraging further reflection, I added, “I guess the question is ‘What is that *real* self?’” Ashley smiled, rejoining, “A moving point of balance. Water crashing against rocks. That's what makes trying to be real so tricky - need to be awfully mindful! Authentic. Integrity...that kind of thing.” </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure="">Drag </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure="">Still the original question persists: Why did female avatars tend to wear the robes? And why in particular did a gender swapping resident find the robes spiritually significant. We contend that female avatars wearing the robes operated similarly to the concept of “drag” proposed by American philosopher and gender theorist Judith Butler, in which a person of one gender dons the clothing associated with a person of another gender. Butler argues that drag is subversive because, as she writes in Bodies that Matter, it “disputes heterosexuality’s claim on naturalness and originality.” [x] Butler contends that because drag exposes gender binaries, it makes the constructed aspect of gender more obvious. [xi] </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure="">My claim is not that the female use of robes is an expression of drag, but that virtual robes operate in a similar way to drag, making avatars mindful of how gender functions, and offering a creative alternative to conventional heteronormative roles on both a political and spiritual level. Being mindful of gender does not deny that it is a real-world concern, and Algama did not stop being a male in real life simply because her avatar was female. Rather, as a cyborg, s/he was nondual, and revealed that gender is ultimately a socially constructed category which has inescapable implications in the conventional everyday lived world. Residents need gender norms in order to live, yet they are simultaneously constrained by these very roles. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/02/grieve/figure5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/02/grieve/figure5.jpg" height="317" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;">Examples of Drag in Second Life. (Second Life Snapshot by Gregory Grieve). </span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure="">The robes worked in a similar way to drag, and made the socially constructed nature of femininity more apparent. Algama noticed, “When you are a male, man, you are just you for yourself. But when you are a girl, oh boy, you seem to be everyone’s concern.” In our conversation, Algama explained that she had always fantasized about being a girl, but that once she actually played one through her avatar, it had not been what she had expected. Speaking about her avatar in the third person she admitted, “It was a lot of work! I still cannot believe how concerned everyone seems about her looks. Or more realistically, I am concerned about how others think she looks. I’m not sure if this is just my problem, or if maybe people feel freer to comment on a woman’s looks.” She wondered if the appearance of a female avatar was always a public concern: “I just want to have fun, or do my job, and every one is sticking their nose into my business.” </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><b>Political and Spiritual Liberation</b> </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure="">On a political level, the robes’ austere and simple form allowed the fashioning of female avatars that were distinct from the hyper-heteronormativity that dominated Second Life, and, by extension, network consumer society. The robes illustrated that inworld gender is constructed through residents’ execution of a stylized repetition of acts, an imitation or miming of the dominant conventions of gender. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure="">On a spiritual level, the robes inspired awareness of the constructed but necessary role of fashioning selves. As a form of mindfulness practice, the virtual robes enabled Algama GossipGirl to acknowledge her desires, indicating that she did not escape gender altogether, but rather navigated the fantasy that gave gender power. For Convert Buddhists, the authentic spiritual resident was nondualitstic, implying that things appear distinct but not separate, and affirming the conception that while distinctions exist, dichotomies are illusory phenomena. This does not mean that gender roles are masks in a game of public presentation, because for Convert Buddhists there is no self behind the mask; instead, the self is the practice. The robes allow those who use a female avatar to explore the fluid and empty nature of identity. As Algama said, “I am a combination of my experiences, perceptions and understandings, both in Second Life and real life.”
<insert 2="" block="" quote=""> </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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--</style><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Buddha's teaching of
the Dharma is based on two truths: a truth of worldly convention and an
ultimate truth. Those who do not understand the distinction drawn between these
two truths do not understand the Buddha's profound truth. Without a foundation
in the conventional truth the significance of the ultimate cannot be taught.
Without understanding the significance of the ultimate, liberation is not
achieved. </span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;">— Nāgārjuna </span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;">(Jay L.
Garfield. The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way: Nagarjuna’s
Mūlamadhyamakakārikā. [New York NY: Oxford University Press, 1995], 296, 298)</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">In “Quand l'habit fait le moine,” Faure writes that monastic robes embody the “Buddhist Two Truths,” a Mahāyāna Buddhist doctrine which maintains that while there is a distinction between conventional reality and ultimate reality, in the end they are nondual and part of the same lived world. Conventional reality <i>(saṃvṛti-satya)</i> refers to the experience of everyday existence, while ultimate reality <i>(paramārtha-satya)</i> suggests emptiness <i>(śunyatā)</i> and enforces the perception that phenomena are impermanent collections of causes and conditions, designated by mere conceptual labels. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">In a similar fashion, just as drag demonstrates the constructed but necessary nature of gender, monastic robes, whether virtual or actual, engender an experience of these two truths and show the necessary but conventional nature of lived worlds. As Faure writes, “Through the ideological manipulation of the symbols adhering to [monk robes], the Zen adept gradually learned how to read through the superimposed symbolic systems, using the logic of the Two Truths, and to move from one symbolic system to another.” [xiii] </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">Conclusion </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></b></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">In order to understand why female avatars tend to wear virtual robes, one must recognize the role that gender-swapping residents like Algama GossipGirl play in exposing the interaction between media practices and gender. The mindful donning of robes plays an important part in resident self-fashioning at Hoben, and, as this blog shows, contributes to the liberation of residents both politically and spiritually. On a political level, the robes allow female avatars to fashion online identities that transcend Second Life’s intense heteronormativity; on a spiritual level, they offer a glimpse into the constructed nature of gender, and of the world in general. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">In terms of material religions, Hoben’s robes reveal that community standards and codes shape residents’ spiritual identities, while at times allowing for modification and agency. In the virtual world, one is not born a resident, but rather becomes one. Similarly, although Second Life acknowledges virtual gender, natural differences in gender do not exist, but are rather created through media practices. The fact that gender is detached from the perceived biological sex of an individual’s body makes it more visible and accessible for analysis. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">In Hoben, robes illustrate the interplay between gender, fashion, and spirituality on one hand, and the feed back between user and avatar on the other. While they do not facilitate the experience of another being’s reality, self-fashioning and media practices in Second Life allow residents to become something novel in the virtual world, underlining the complications associated with social roles. As Algama said near the end of our conversation, “I don’t think playing a girl, ever allowed me to really know what it is like to…be a girl,...but I did see how being a guy was…different.” Mindfulness regarding the constructed nature of lived reality enables residents to imagine alternate existences, and to do so in a secure and responsive environment. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">End Notes </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></b></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">i. <i>Cyber Zen: Imagining Authentic Buddhist Identity, Community and Practices in the Virtual World of Second Life</i>, Routledge. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">ii. Unless stated otherwise the names of Second Life residents and regions are pseudonyms. This choice was difficult because I wished to give credit to the individuals who became not just subjects, but friends, and without whom the study would have been impossible. However, to err on the side of protecting individuals, when information was collected through participant observation, interviews, or surveys, or if there was the possibility that public sources could be tied to a conversant, I use pseudonyms. Additionally, in an effort to obscure a resident’s identity and protect sensitive information, I take the liberty of changing or combining details from more than one resident. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">iii. Bernard Faure. “Quand l'habit fait le moine: The Symbolism of the Kāsāya in Sōtō Zen.” <i>Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie</i> 8, no. 3 (1995), 335. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">iv. Lila Abu-Lughod “Writing Against Culture,” in <i>Feminist Anthropology: A Reader,</i> ed. Ellen Lewin (Malden MA: Blackwell Publishing), 155. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">v. William James. <i>The Principles of Psychology.</i> (New York NY: Henry Holt and Company, 1890), 291. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">vi. “Resident,” <a href="http://wiki.secondlife.com/wiki/Resident">http://wiki.secondlife.com/wiki/Resident</a> [Accessed August 23, 2013] </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">vii. “Press Room,” Linden Lab, <a href="http://www.lindenlab.com/press" target="_blank">http://www.lindenlab.com/press</a> [Accessed February 3, 2010] </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">viii. “Create Your Avatar Like You,” Second Life, <a href="http://go.secondlife.com/landing/avatar/">http://go.secondlife.com/landing/avatar/</a> [Accessed January 7, 2016]. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">ix. Turkle, Sherry. <i>The Second Self: Computers and The Human Spirit.</i> New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984. Turkle, Sherry. <i>Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of Internet.</i> New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995. Turkle, Sherry. <i>Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other.</i> New York: Basic Books, 2011. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">x. Amy Bruckman, “Gender Swapping on the Internet,” Presented at the Internet Society, San Francisco CA, August 1993, <a href="http://www.cc.gatech.edu/~asb/papers/gender-swapping.txt">http://www.cc.gatech.edu/~asb/papers/gender-swapping.txt</a> [accessed November 9 2015]. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">xi. Butler, Judith. <i>Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex.”</i> (New York NY: Routledge, 1993), 125. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">xii. Butler, Judith. <i>Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity.</i> (New York NY: Routledge, 1990), 179. </insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></insert></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><insert 1="" figure=""><insert block="" quote=""><insert 2="" figure=""><insert 3="" figure=""><insert 4="" figure=""><insert 5="" figure=""><insert 2="" block="" quote="">xiii. Bernard Faure. “Quand l'habit fait le moine: The Symbolism of the Kāsāya in Sōtō Zen.” <i>Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie</i> 8, no. 3 (1995), 365).
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-73291564064365337182016-02-09T20:56:00.002-08:002016-02-09T21:08:26.310-08:00The Power of the Image in a Peruvian Indulgence <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/emily-floyd.html" target="_blank">Emily Floyd</a> discusses the multivalent nature of printed indulgences in colonial Peru. In addition to advertising the opportunity for the recipient to diminish time spent in Purgatory, indulgences often incorporated large, printed images of holy figures, opening them up to a range of possible devotional uses. </span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Floyd</span>, <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Emily C.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"The Power of the Image in a Peruvian Indulgence"</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions</i>. <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">10</span></span> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Febru</span>ary</span> 201<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">6</span>. Web. [date of access]</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">On February 9, 2009, the New York Times ran an article titled <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/10/nyregion/10indulgence.html?_r=0" target="_blank">“For Catholics, a Door to Absolution Is Reopened,”</a> describing the Catholic Church’s reintroduction of indulgences after ending the practice in the wake of <a href="http://www.npr.org/2012/10/10/162573716/why-is-vatican-ii-so-important" target="_blank">Vatican II</a>. Indulgences are best known to the general public for having attracted the ire of Protestant Reformers such as Martin Luther during the Protestant Reformation. The logic of indulgences rests on the concept of Purgatory, an intermediary space in which souls are purged of their sins prior to being welcomed into Heaven. The souls of those who had committed unforgivable mortal sins in life went straight to Hell and damnation, but the majority of individuals who had sinned less drastically would spend some amount of time in temporary torment in Purgatory. Indulgences granted the recipient remission of that time. As the New York Times article described, many contemporary Catholics were confused by the purpose and function of indulgences. One woman asked, “<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">W</span>hat does it mean to get time off in Purgatory? What is five years in terms of eternity?” </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">Eighteenth-century Peruvian printed indulgences suggest that the opaque nature of the indulgence isn’t limited to the twenty-first century. Indulgences were common in Peru—the numerous confraternities associated with each of the many churches in cities throughout the region all had their own indulgences (confraternities are religious associations that come together for mutual support and, sometimes, charitable purposes, usually centered around a specific miracle-working image). Bishops, archbishops, and popes might issue indulgences for any number of reasons and in a variety of degrees, from a few days free from purgatory to plenary indulgences (only issuable by popes) that cleansed the recipient of the weight of all the sins they had committed until that moment. These grants were often contingent on the recipient performing certain actions—making a donation to a cause (such as the Holy Crusade) or saying specific prayers in a designated place or before a named cult image. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure</span> 1: "Nuestra Señora de las Cabezas (Our Lady of
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">If indulgences were on one level enacted by the combination of the will of the ecclesiastical leader and the action of the recipient, they were also often physically embodied in printed sheets. Many of these physical indulgences survive today in the collection of the <a href="http://www.bnp.gob.pe/" target="_blank">Biblioteca Nacional del Perú</a> in Lima, where I have worked with them as part of my broader research into religious prints made in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Lima. The eighteenth-century Peruvian indulgence in <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure</span> 1, for example, advertises forty days free from purgatory. The text that explicitly states the broadsheet’s purpose is dwarfed, however, by the printed image. How did viewers respond to this object when confronted by it? A print of this kind would have been inexpensive enough to be accessible to individuals from a wide portion of society, perhaps purchasing it at a shop or in a market, perhaps receiving it freely from the confraternity that commissioned it. It is far from given that all eighteenth-century viewers would have been able to read the text, and, even if they could, the message is still ambiguous. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">The cult image depicted<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> in this engraving</span>, [i] Nuestra Señora de las Cabezas (Our Lady of the Heads), a Limenian depiction of the Virgin Mary, hovers on a cloudbank studded with the heads of cherubim. In her right hand she holds a standard with the initials of the Virgin Mary topped by the letter “S” pierced by a nail, a rebus for “slave” (es-clavo) in Spanish, and a reference to confraternity members who declared themselves “slaves” of the Virgin. Her left arm supports the Christ child. Both holy figures are crowned and ornately dressed, the manner in which they are depicted is meant to recall the appearance of statues of the Virgin and Christ child during this period. The likely wooden statue itself might be a diminutive seated Virgin and Child, but devotees dressed the figure, <a href="http://mavcor.yale.edu/conversations/object-narratives/virgin-guadalupe-extremadura-spain" target="_blank">as in this other example</a>, in elaborate robes that dramatically augmented its size. The complex composition suggests a hierophany of the Virgin in this form to a shepherd, who kneels in adoration before her, his flocks spread out behind him. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 2: “Imagen de la Virgen (Virgin de la Cabeza)”, CC BY-SA 3.0, Image Credit.</span>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">The composition reflects the connection of Our Lady of las Cabezas to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Cabeza#/media/File:VIRGENDELACABEZA2.jpg" target="_blank">another Virgin of similar name</a> (la Cabeza rather than las Cabezas, Figure 2) in Jaén, Spain. <a href="http://www.santuariovirgencabeza.org/page/historia" target="_blank">According to legend</a>, in 1227 a shepherd discovered the statue of the Virgin of la Cabeza high on a mountain while caring for his flocks. The print represents this moment, but the text of the engraving directs devotees not to the Spanish Virgin but to the church in the neighborhood of Rimac in Lima. Hector Schenone, somewhat confusingly, tells us that the cult image in Lima, now lost, was a “dressed image,” with a shepherd at her feet and "behind, a mountainous landscape with the sanctuary" (<i>Santa María: iconografía del arte colonial,</i> 323; my translation). Although it is difficult to envision Schenone's description as a grouping of statues within an architectural space, as suggested by his use of the term “dressed image,” his description closely matches the print. Is the print (and perhaps the original image) meant to recall the Spanish landscape and sanctuary that housed the original?<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span>The tooth-like protuberances of the mountainous landscape are more evocative of another famous Spanish Marian shrine, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/22746515@N02/6525963473/" target="_blank">Montserrat in Catalonia</a>, (Figure 3) than of the smooth mountain of the <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/carmen_theothervision/17201564130/" target="_blank">Spanish la Cabeza Virgin</a>, (Figure 4) and the sanctuary bears only passing resemblance to the surviving temple in Jaén or to earlier representations thereof. Which particular landscape and image are being evoked here?
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 3: “Monastir/Abadia de Montserrat”<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">,</span> CC BY-SA 2.0<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">,</span> <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/22746515@N02/6525963473/" target="_blank">Image Credit.</a> </span>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 4: “Santuario de la virgen de la Cabeza, Andújar, Jaén”<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">,</span> CC BY-NC-ND 2.0<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">,</span> <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/carmen_theothervision/17201564130/" target="_blank">Image Credit.</a></span>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">Bruno Latour would have us believe that “what imagery has tried to achieve through countless feats of art is the opposite of turning the spectator’s eyes to the model far away: on the contrary, incredible pains have been taken to break the habitual gaze of the viewer, so as to attract attention to the present state, the only one which can be said to offer salvation” (<i>On the Modern Cult of the Factish Gods,</i> 115). Latour is responding to the Catholic Church’s official stance on use of images in religious practice: Catholics venerate their religious images in honor of the celestial prototypes they represent; <a href="http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c1a1.htm" target="_blank">they do not worship the images themselves</a>. For Latour this is an inaccurate representation of how religious images actually function. Latour argues that successful religious images direct the viewer not to a distant prototype (Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, one of the saints), but rather bring the attention of the viewer into the present moment. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">The purpose of the Nuestra Señora de las Cabezas indulgence is less clear-cut than Latour’s argument would suggest, and varies depending on the consumer we envision. For the commissioners of the image, it seems to have been intended at least in part as an advertisement for the shrine. The confraternity associated with the Virgin seems to have been responsible for issuing this imprint, as the text explicitly names “Laureano” as the <i>mayordomo</i> (an individual serving a term as the official responsible for directing the confraternity) and treasurer of the confraternity. Perhaps the confraternity hoped to increase their membership and thus revenue, or encourage non-members to visit the shrine with the possible corresponding donations. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">The textual inscription supports this interpretation, but it also complicates the indulgence’s purpose. It reads (my translation): </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">"The Illustrious . . . Francisco Gutierrez Bishop of Rosalia and Auxiliary of Lima concedes 40 days of Indulgence to all the faithful who before this print of Nuestra Señora de las CABESAS [sic] or before her colored original in her Church pray an Our Father and a Hail Mary." </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">The text thus explicitly acknowledges the insistent power of the object itself. The commissioners of the indulgence may have wished to encourage visits to the shrine or to increase membership in the confraternity, but they recognized their ultimate inability to control the way in which devotees would use such an object. By including a large, printed image of the Virgin of las Cabezas, the indulgence allowed its possessors to bring the Virgin into their homes and to interact with her directly in ways that would be impossible in the more restricted context of a church. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, holy images were often hidden from devotee’s eyes much of the time, shielded by protective curtains. When they were uncovered, they were situated within elaborate altar structures that placed them beyond the reach of the faithful. In contrast, devotees could touch and adorn prints, build small altars around them within their homes, and use them to ease pain in childbirth or heal a headache by applying them to the area in question. Textual sources from the period attest to all of these uses, and the worn condition of many surviving prints supports the written narrative. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">Ideally the print would at least encourage devotion to the Virgin of las Cabezas, but in the end the promise of indulgences might pale next to the image’s ability to engage with the viewer, bringing the sacred into the present. [ii] For, after all, what is forty days in terms of eternity? </span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">Endnotes </span></span></b><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">[i] An engraving is a form of intaglio print produced by cutting into a thin, polished copper plate with a sharp tool known as a burin. The plate is then wiped with ink so that the ink remains only in the lines cut by the burin. The plate is placed on the bed of a roller printing press, with a sheet of paper, often dampened, placed over it. Paper and copper plate are then run through the press at high pressure, causing the ink to be forced out from the indentations in the plate onto the paper and producing the resulting image. The plate may then be re-inked in order to produce further impressions of the same image. The earliest known engraving produced in Peru dates to 1612. For more about engraving, see Kimberley Nichols, “Physical Properties of Early Prints,” in <i>Altered and Adorned: Using Renaissance Prints in Daily Life,</i> ed. Suzanne Karr Schmidt (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 2011). </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">[ii] For more on purgatory and the colonial Andes, see Nancy E. van Deusen, <i>The Souls of Purgatory: The Spiritual Diary of a Seventeenth-Century Afro-Peruvian Mystic, Ursula de Jesús</i> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004).
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span></b> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">Latour, Bruno. <i>On the Modern Cult of the Factish Gods. </i>Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2010. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Nichols, Kimberley. “Physical
Qualities of Early Prints.” In <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Altered
and Adorned: <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Using Renaissance Prints
in Daily Life</span>, </i>99-105. Editor, Suzanne Karr Schmidt. Chicago: Art
Institute of Chicago, 2011. </span></span></span></div>
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</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Peterson, Jeanette Favrot. <a href="http://mavcor.yale.edu/conversations/object-narratives/virgin-guadalupe-extremadura-spain" target="_blank">"The Virgin of Guadalupe, Extremadura, Spain." Object Narrative.</a> In <i>Conversations:
An Online Journal of the Center for the Study of Material and Visual Cultures
of Religion </i>(2014). </span>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">Schenone, Héctor H. <i>Santa María: iconografía del arte colonial.</i> Buenos Aires: Educa, 2008. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">Teicher, Jordan G. <a href="http://www.npr.org/2012/10/10/162573716/why-is-vatican-ii-so-important" target="_blank">“Why Is Vatican II So Important?”</a> <i>NPR.</i> October 10, 2012. http://www.npr.org/2012/10/10/162573716/why-is-vatican-ii-so-important </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;">Vitello, Paul. <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/10/nyregion/10indulgence.html?_r=0" target="_blank">“For Catholics, a Door to Absolution Is Reopened.”</a> <i>The New York Times. </i>February 9, 2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/10/nyregion/10indulgence.html</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">van Deusen, Nancy E. <i>The Souls
of Purgatory: The Spiritual Diary of a Seventeenth-Century Afro-Peruvian
Mystic, Ursula de Jesús. </i>Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press,
2004.</span></span></span></div>
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-21319378161852539042016-01-27T00:04:00.001-08:002016-01-27T00:04:38.890-08:00Native Appropriation In A Hipster Heterotopia: The Headdress Phenomenon At Indie Music Festivals<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Hamilton-Arnold</span>, <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Jeremy W.</span><i> </i></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Native Appropriation In A Hipster Heterotopia</span>: </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The Headdress Phenomenon At Indie Music Festivals</span>."</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions</i>. <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">27</span> J<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">anuary</span> 201<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">6</span>. Web. [date of access]</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The indie music festival appears to be a hipster utopia. It is a locus, bounded by the span of a weekend and the physical barriers bordering the venue. To this locus are drawn musicians from a variety record labels and the various social bodies attracted to their music. But such bodies come for more than music; they come out of a fondness for being enmeshed in a place and a desire to be participants in a micro-society. Hipster culture in particular reigns in this concentrated population, where ravenous acquisition of anything deemed “authentic” takes precedence and illusions of commodity-free consumerism abound. That is, hipster culture appears to promote the assumption that <i>true</i> commodities are products from <i>mainstream</i> capitalist culture; and indie music festivals foster a space for products <i>immune</i> from mainstream capitalism––that “soulless” realm devoid of aesthetic feeling. The hipster’s ultra-sensory festival experience, felt through a variety of consumptive practices, is also a performative experience when one recognizes clothes as a conduit. For the hipster, this becomes a visual paradox when those clothes are <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=hipster+headdress&safe=off&client=safari&rls=en&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi3waKoksHJAhUKVj4KHT3qBmcQsAQIHA&biw=1441&bih=934#safe=off&tbm=isch&q=indie+music+festival+headdress" target="_blank">appropriated</a>: the presentation of self as an authentic original is constructed through adopting elements of dress from an/other. Upon the critic’s discovery or realization of the hipster’s mimesis of alterity (to use Michael Taussig's terminology), the performance becomes for the critic ultimately unoriginal and inauthentic.[i] </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 1: "Me and my headdress :)", CC BY 2.0, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/whatleydude/4876495064" target="_blank">Image Credit.</a></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Following Foucault, I call the environment where this takes place a <i>hipster<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span>heterotopia</i> rather than <i>hipster utopia</i>, seeking to emphasize: the actual existence of such a typology in the real-world, its relative otherness to places of the everyday, and its increasingly discursive qualities as made evident through controversies of cultural appropriation.[ii] Specifically this is seen through the hipster’s appropriation of the Plains Indian headdress or war bonnet that for the hipster has appeared to fulfill the desire for commodity-free consumption while displaying to others a counter-cultural self. For those who have found this distasteful, the authentic war bonnet thus became inauthentically twined in the appropriative act, and thus was born the <i>hipster headdress</i>. This object of mimesis rapidly took on exogenic totemism for the non-Indian social group—an iconic marker of hipster culture’s distinctive ignorance and cultural insensitivity. In other words, the hipster headdress becomes seen (again I follow Taussig) as a moment of mimetic excess, materially sustaining the imperial mindset of Euro-American settler colonialism. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In this paper, I argue that whereas headdress-wearing hipsters see the object as an authentic anti-commodity viable for appropriation, Native Persons and their allies view the opposite: the hipster's act is misappropriation—a form of cultural extraction and re-contextualization that commoditizes the headdress as “fashion accessory” and transforms the object into something profanely inauthentic—distinct from that which is <i>truly</i> authentic and sacred. </span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">THE HIPSTER </span></span></span></b><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Every generation has their bohemians, their generators of the “culture of cool”: the beatnik, the hippy, the punk. They are defined by their desire for counter-culture individuality and are segmented into generally cohesive manifestations. Over the past ten to fifteen years, a new brand of bohemianism has reified in the person of the “hipster.” One of the better definitions for this amorphous category of person comes from New York Times blogger Christy Wampole. She says, </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“The hipster is a scholar of social forms, a student of cool. He studies relentlessly, foraging for what has yet to be found by the mainstream. He is a walking citation; his clothes refer to much more than themselves. He tries to negotiate the age-old problem of individuality, not with concepts, but with material things.”[iii] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The hipster, like all socially-invested bodies, requires materiality to define and perform selfhood, which is perhaps most intimately enacted through consumerism. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hipsters amass things and take delight in turning them into enchanted objects by endowing them with new meanings (or perhaps hipsters perceive meanings at first sensory contact, when things have already been endowed with meaning by other hipsters). Amassing for hipsters takes place for the purpose of achieving what Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht called the “aesthetic experience” in everyday worlds–-a process of enchantment via intentionally seeking and seeing the aesthetic in objects of sensory consumption.[iv] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">It is in this process that hipsters seek to avoid commodity goods (as they see them) and instead amass what they perceive to be anti-commodities: the artisan-made and the vintage, objects invested with meaning by being products of "craft" and "nostalgia"--objects that <i>appear</i> to ultimately transcend their capital-value through aesthetic-value. This search for anti-commodities causes the hipster to move away from occupying “inauthentic” capitalist realms to occupying spaces that promote aesthetic experience--places where the body may engage with objects of sensation and enchantment. NPR columnist <a href="http://www.npr.org/sections/therecord/2012/11/20/165578178/it-isnt-just-ironic-in-defense-of-the-hipster" target="_blank">Ann Powers </a>defends this move away from "chain stores and cold cubicles", while warning of its dangers: “That path can lead to a mirage: Romanticizing the past is a convenient way to avoid its long-embedded problems, from racism and sexism to the drudgery of many working people's days. But insofar as these activities involve the body—moving in time-honored ways as you try a classic dance step or chop some wood—they can fix an alienated relationship with tradition, forging a link that's personal and real.”[v] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>“PLAYING INDIAN” IN THE HIPSTER HETEROTOPIA</b> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">At the seemingly anti-capitalist realm of the indie music festival, the hipster has taken to self-enchantment by reviving the Euro-American tradition of native appropriation, donning the Plains Indian feathered headdress as a part of a counter-cultural uniform for this hipster carnival. Following Philip J. Deloria, I argue this tradition of "playing Indian" has <i>never</i> waned to the point of alienation; it has been rather persistent in American culture.[vi] After Deloria opens his book<i> Playing Indian</i> with a critical discussion of the Boston Tea Party, one of the first public events of Indian play in American history, he sets up an interpretive schematic of meaning for this and all Indian play, saying, </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">"Although these performances have changed over time, the practice of playing Indian has clustered around two paradigmatic moments––the Revolution, which rested on the creation of a national identity, and modernity, which has used Indian play to encounter the authentic amidst the anxiety of urban industrial and postindustrial life."[vii] </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/arnold/Figure2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/arnold/Figure2.jpg" height="283" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 2: Nathaniel Currier,<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> "</span>The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor", lithograph (1846), Public Domain.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The headdress-donning hipster fits perfectly into Deloria's second paradigm. At the indie music festival, the hipster encounters and embraces an opportunity for revelry. Heterotopias such as this encourage difference, and the hipster follows through in the extreme by appropriating the iconic symbol of American alterity and embodying its enchanted meanings of Savage Otherness. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Deloria authored <i>Playing Indian</i> in 1998 and thus was unable to comment on this current iteration of the American tradition, but he did witness an instance of its prefiguration at a Grateful Dead concert in the early 1990s and offered commentary in his conclusion. At this concert he encountered the Society of Indian Dead, who in "paint, buckskin," "feathers," shrouded in "smoke," and congregated within parking-lot tipis, played Indian in this space that welcomed––even encouraged––their "antimodern quest for authentic truth" and their "rejection of urbanism, technology, mass culture, environmental degradation, and alienating individualism."[viii] We can see many of these qualities and characteristics encapsulated in today’s iteration of hippy (two generations removed) and at the indie music festival (the situational inheritor of counter-cultural musical heterotopia). Deloria's analysis seems timeless and applicable. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This iconic, stereotypical “Indian aesthetic” has for a long time found a remarkably comfortable home in the realm of American rock, folk, and even electronica. Weather from older popular musicians like Elvis (see below) or bands like the <a href="http://www.officialvillagepeople.com/" target="_blank">Village People</a>, or from contemporary indie performers like <a href="http://hipsterappropriations.tumblr.com/post/2612965997/checkerboardfloors-when-i-showed-him-our" target="_blank">Jonsi</a> from Sigur Ros, musicians themselves have seemed apt to don the feathered headdress for on-stage performances.[ix] <a href="http://mic.com/articles/88941/the-awful-history-behind-why-hipsters-think-it-s-ok-to-wear-headdresses#.mVoyMYAPX" target="_blank">DJ Lanphier</a> from the website Music.Mic suggests a major contributing player in the iconic proliferation in music was through the ’60’s band the 1910 Fruitgum Company and their popular album “Indian Giver," which featured on the cover all six band members in American Indian “costumes,” each sporting a different headdress along with other stereotyped Native attributes.[x] Today the appropriative trend has reappeared with florescence due in part to major fashion icons (such as <a href="http://nativeappropriations.com/2012/11/guess-we-can-add-victorias-secret-to-the-list.html" target="_blank">Victoria’s Secret</a> model Karlie Kloss) and pop music performers (<a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/gyasi-/pharell-williams-headdresses_b_5449926.html" target="_blank">Pharrell</a>) promoting an appropriation of the war bonnet as a sensual—often <a href="http://www.cosmopolitan.com/style-beauty/fashion/advice/a38218/native-american-headdress-music-festival/" target="_blank">sexualized</a>––display of high-fashion savagery.[xi] Though, as the hipsters would have it, they got to the trend first, before it was cool. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/arnold/Figure3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/arnold/Figure3.jpg" height="400" width="235" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 3: "Elvis", CC BY-NC-ND 2.0, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/summer1978/17096247484/in/photolist-s3JJKE" target="_blank"> Image Credit.</a></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">They first began spreading it at these indie music festivals, the concentrated locus for spreading and affirming hip trends among consumers of hip music. Music festivals like Coachella Valley Music & Arts Festival in southern California have promoted and capitalized on the trend of headdress-appropriation, participating in the mimesis of the perceived icon of alterity through a variety of materials. <a href="http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/04/18/hipster-headdresses-coachella-yep-it-happened-154513" target="_blank">Coachella</a> especially has been well known for its high density of headdress-wearing festival goers.[xii] The massive spectacle, which in the course of two weekends in April of this year raked in a record of over $84 million, is the world's highest grossing festival and should be seen as a veritable cauldron of hipster commodification.[xiii] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">How, then, does the headdress-wearing indie-music-festival-goer miss the commodified status of the headdress, let alone the cultural insensitivity in its appropriation? Following Deloria, I find that the hipster perceives an anti-modern power in the headdress that surpasses and occludes all negative significations; its mimetic <i>in</i>authenticity is unknown or irrelevant. As Taussig states, "in imitating, we will find distance from the imitated and hence gain some release from the suffocating hold of 'constructionism' no less than the dreadfully passive view of nature it upholds."[xiv] Here I revisit the hipster’s paradox: in the exercising of “mimetic faculties,”[xv] the hipster finds a cessation of inauthentic conformity to modern western civilization and instead embodies a perceived alterity, miming and acquiring a felt authenticity of Self, despite mimesis being, by definition, unoriginal. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The hipster’s attraction to and appropriation of the headdress has become fetishistic in essence. Enchanted, it holds the magic of the foreign, the exotic, the otherworldly. It is “Indianness” in a single object. Its materiality is perceived as shockingly different from normalcy, which is heightened in its mimetic forms, where the headdresses can become an aesthetic exclamation point of exaggerated formal qualities. The headdress recalls the ever-appealing <i>vintage</i> popular culture; it is a product of romantic nostalgia, evoking moods and feelings associated with childhood play recently shuffled off for these new adults. The hipster’s headdress carries meanings of macho bravery and fierceness, yet ironically downplayed by casual frivolity. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/arnold/Figure4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/arnold/Figure4.jpg" height="265" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 4: "Stand aside or get hurt", CC BY 2.0, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/camkage/4376277650" target="_blank">Image Credit.</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">As a fetish, it magically endows its wearer with a plastic identity. With the physical weight of the head’s adornment—with its textured materiality newly experienced by the hipster at the festival site, the headdress is <i>experienced</i> as it makes the self “Indian-like.” It feels “handmade,” “natural,” and looks “authentic,” despite its likelihood of being bought second hand <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">from</span> <a href="https://www.etsy.com/search?q=indian+headdress" target="_blank">Etsy</a>.[xvi] Its natural (or nature-evoking) materials of feathers and leather are sensed as bespoke and <i>feels</i> like an anti-commodity. As an icon of “Indianness,” such specific materiality can magically endow the wearer with a feeling of wild “oneness with nature,” or at least connote that message to others by visibly performing alterity—by playing Indian. Relatedly, it carries with it a feeling of <i>ek-stasis</i>, transcendent otherworldliness through an amorphous and generic “Indian spirituality” which serves to enhance an ultra-sensory experience of the festival. I interpret this to be an embodiment of what native appropriation scholars Carter Jones Meyer and Diana Royer call “white shamanism,” here expanding it beyond “non-Indian poets and writers” yet maintaining its performative definition as an “[appropriation of] an Indian identity or higher Indian ‘powers’ to convey [and I would add <i>experience</i>] certain mystical truths…”[xvii] The heterotopic festival and its attending carnivalesque social atmosphere encourage a deep shapeshifting of identity, and the hipster, in a heterotopic curation of selfhood, finds ultimate shapeshifting in appropriating an icon of deep alterity. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>MIMETIC EXCESS</b> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In the Native countering and naming of this act as misappropriation, the hipster mimesis has begun to backfire and become widely recognized as inauthentic and can be understood (again following Taussig) as “mimetic excess.”[xviii] In this recognition of mimesis, <a href="http://noisey.vice.com/blog/this-is-what-indigenous-artists-think-of-your-hipster-headdress" target="_blank">Native groups and individuals</a> have sought to widen the mimetic gap, emphasizing the sacred authenticity and originality of the Plains Indian war bonnet as distinct and far removed from its commoditized copy. The former is seen as truly, authentically, powerful, unique in its variety among numerous Native cultures, yet linked by a commonly revered social and spiritual status and its visible embeddedness within Native communities. The latter is a profane twin, an “inauthentic” commodity, a “hipster headdress.” </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/arnold/Figure5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/arnold/Figure5.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 5: "Secret Garden Party 2014", CC BY-NC-ND 2.0, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/chrisjohnbeckett/14666525638" target="_blank">Image Credit.</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The hipster wearing the “hipster headdress” has since become a marked icon for Euro-American ignorance, neo-colonialism, and “cultural imperialism.”[xix] The hipster who dons the headdress becomes a pariah on social media and the object of online critique. Numerous photos on <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/hipsterheaddress" target="_blank">Twitter</a> and <a href="https://www.instagram.com/explore/tags/hipsterheaddress/" target="_blank">Instagram</a> evince instances of offense with the hashtags “#hipster,” “#hipsterheaddress,” “#DontTrendOnMe,” and “#NativeAppropriation.”[xx] In this new iteration of “Indian play,” Native Peoples and non-Native allies see a new social iconography on display: the blasphemy of the privileged American hipster who seeks a misguided authenticity by appropriating “sacred” Native materialities, perpetuating Native marginalization, or worse, cultural genocide.[xxi] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>CONCLUSION</b> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">For both headdress-wearing hipsters and their objectors, the headdress (or the headdress-wearer) has renewed its status as a powerful icon, but in reality, it has become twinned into two distinct icons through mimesis. As hipster culture at the indie music festival has endowed and perceived the object once more with an imperialist and romanticized meaning of anti-modern wildness—savage alterity, Native Peoples reinforce their war bonnets with religious meaning and reverence through their invocation of the word “sacred.” They re-inscribe the “authenticity” of the headdress with meanings of cultural sovereignty, uniqueness, and power. Here the headdress type's doubling––an authentic original and an inauthentic fake––is affirmed. Where one is religiously and culturally revered, the copy is lamented as a commoditized theft, an icon of their perceived Otherness made within and for a uniquely American Capitalist-Imperialist society. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The hipster's headdress-wearing days at Indie music festivals and other heterotopias may be numbered with the rise of both "hashtag activism" and direct confrontation within these heterotopias. But I am left wondering with skepticism whether hipster culture (and Euro-American culture more broadly) will be able to dislodge their entrenched totemic sense of American Indian iconicity. If not, mimetic Indian play will likely continue in <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as-it-happens-friday-edition-1.3339772/u-k-fashion-house-pulls-copied-inuit-design-here-s-their-apology-1.3339779" target="_blank">other heterotopias</a>. It is an American tradition, after all. </span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Endnotes </span></span></span></b><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[i] Michael Taussig, <i>Mimesis and Alterity: A Particular History of the Senses</i> (New York: Routledge, 1993). </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[ii] I borrow from Michel Foucault, who uses this term to describe a separate, defined, porous space identified by difference and distance from other spaces. Some examples of heterotopias he provides include graveyards, boats, early New England Puritan colonies, libraries, museums, fairgrounds, etc. The theoretical list of possible heterotopias could be endless. Michel Foucault, “Of Other Places,” <i>Diacritics</i> 16 (1986): 22-27. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[iii] Christy Wampole, “How to Live Without Irony,” <i>The New York Times: The Opinion Pages,</i> November 17, 2012, accessed December 13, 2014, <a href="http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/17/how-to-live-without-irony/?_r=0">http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/17/how-to-live-without-irony/?_r=0</a>. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[iv] Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, “Aesthetic Experience in Everyday Worlds: Reclaiming an Unredeemed Utopian Motif” <i>New Literary History</i> 37 (2006): 306. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[v] Ann Powers, “It Isn’t (Just) Ironic: In Defense of the Hipster,” <i>NPR,</i> November 20, 2012, accessed December 13, 2014, http://www.npr.org/blogs/therecord/2012/11/20/165578178/it-isnt-just-ironic-in-defense-of-the-hipster. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[vi] Philip J. Deloria, <i>Playing Indian</i> (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 7. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[vii] Deloria, 7. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[viii] Deloria, 181-82. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[ix] To be clear, Felipe Ortiz Rose, the individual wearing the headdress, is son to a Lakota Sioux father. However, I would argue that Rose's dress became viewed by the public as just as much a costume as those worn by the other members, thus maintaining the headdress's perceived pluralistic availability for any wishing to perform an "Indian" identity.; Adrienne Keene, “The Hipster Headdress Abounds at Coachella,” <i>Native Appropriations,</i> April 26, 2010, accessed December 13, 2014, <a href="http://nativeappropriations.com/2010/04/the-hipster-headdress-abounds-at-coachella.html">http://nativeappropriations.com/2010/04/the-hipster-headdress-abounds-at-coachella.html</a>.; “NeverShoutNever and the Hipster Headdress,” <i>Native Appropriations, </i>September 1, 2010, accessed December 13, 2014, <a href="http://nativeappropriations.com/2010/09/nevershoutnever-and-the-hipster-headdress.html">http://nativeappropriations.com/2010/09/nevershoutnever-and-the-hipster-headdress.html</a>. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[x] DJ Lanphier, “The Awful History Behind Why Hipsters Think It’s OK To Wear Headdresses,” <i>Music.Mic,</i> May 6, 2014, accessed December 13, 2014, <a href="http://mic.com/articles/88941/the-awful-history-behind-why-hipsters-think-it-s-ok-to-wear-headdresses">http://mic.com/articles/88941/the-awful-history-behind-why-hipsters-think-it-s-ok-to-wear-headdresses</a>. The title song topped at No. 5 on Billboard. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xi] Keene, “Archives for Hipster Headdress,” Native Appropriations, accessed December 13, 2014, <a href="http://nativeappropriations.com/category/hipster-headdress">http://nativeappropriations.com/category/hipster-headdress</a>. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xii] Keene, “The Hipster Headdress Abounds at Coachella,” Native Appropriations, April 26, 2010, accessed December 13, 2014, <a href="http://nativeappropriations.com/2010/04/the-hipster-headdress-abounds-at-coachella.html">http://nativeappropriations.com/2010/04/the-hipster-headdress-abounds-at-coachella.html</a>; Zak Cheney-Rice, “Why So Many American Indians Have an Issue with Coachella,” <i>News.Mic</i>, April 15, 2014, accessed December 13, 2014, <a href="http://mic.com/articles/87709/why-so-many-american-indians-have-an-issue-with-coachella">http://mic.com/articles/87709/why-so-many-american-indians-have-an-issue-with-coachella</a>. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xiii] Ray Waddell, “Coachella Earns Over $84 Million, Breaks Attendance Records,” Billboard, July 15, 2015, accessed November 16, 2015, <a href="http://m.billboard.com/entry/view/id/132853">http://m.billboard.com/entry/view/id/132853</a>. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xiv] Taussig, xix. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xv] Taussig. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xvi] “search: ‘feathered headdress’,” <i>Etsy,</i> accessed December 13, 2014, <a href="https://www.etsy.com/search?q=feathered%20headdress&order=most_relevant">https://www.etsy.com/search?q=feathered%20headdress&order=most_relevant</a>. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xvii] Carter Jones Meyer and Diana Royer, eds. <i>Selling the Indian: Commercializing & Appropriating American Indian Cultures</i> (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press), xi - xii. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xviii] Artist Roger Peet has taken notice of this mimesis in its excess, and takes stock of its racial fulcrum through his artwork. At his exhibition in Portland, Oregon where this and other works evincing cultural appropriation were hung, you were offered "whiteness goggles" which would visibly erase everything red. Peet says: "When you put on the “Whiteness Goggles,” the colonial, military and police violence that underpins casual cultural consumption disappears. This is what life is like under whiteness, within the dominant category that capitalism has created. We white people can just unsee the violence that is done in our name. We don’t have to look. When we put on the whiteness goggles, we become heroes, and all the while so many others look at us as butchers.” Roger Peet, from IN // APPROPRIATE: An Excavation of Appropriation” at the Littman Gallery in Portland, O<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">R</span>. <a href="http://toosphexy.com/post/123660111734/here-are-some-photos-from-inappropriate-a-show">http://toosphexy.com/post/123660111734/here-are-some-photos-from-inappropriate-a-show</a>. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xix] Meyer and Royer, xi. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xx] Zak Cheney-Rice, “Why So Many American Indians Have an Issue with Coachella,” <i>News.Mic</i>, April 15, 2014, accessed December 13, 2014, <a href="http://mic.com/articles/87709/why-so-many-american-indians-have-an-issue-with-coachella">http://mic.com/articles/87709/why-so-many-american-indians-have-an-issue-with-coachella</a>. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[xxi] Meyer and Royer. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Waddell, Ray. “Coachella Earns Over $84 Million, Breaks Attendance Record.” <i>BillboardBiz, </i>July 15, 2015. Accessed November 16, 2014. <a href="http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/touring/6150327/coachella-breaks-boxscore-record-again">http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/touring/6150327/coachella-breaks-boxscore-record-again</a>. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Wampole, Christy. “How to Live Without Irony.” <i>The New York Times: The Opinion Pages,</i> November 17, 2012. Accessed December 13, 2014. <a href="http://www.billboard.com/articles/business/6633636/coachella-2015-earnings-84-million-breaks-attendance-records?mobile_redirection=false">http://www.billboard.com/articles/business/6633636/coachella-2015-earnings-84-million-breaks-attendance-records?mobile_redirection=false</a>. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Weeks, Linton. “The Hipsterfication of America.” <i>NPR,</i> November 17, 2011. Accessed December 13, 2014. <a href="http://www.npr.org/2011/11/16/142387490/the-hipsterfication-of-america">http://www.npr.org/2011/11/16/142387490/the-hipsterfication-of-america</a>.
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-52425696027333655292016-01-13T10:30:00.000-08:002016-01-13T10:30:01.048-08:00The Lion’s Roar: Imagining Conch Shell Trumpets in Early Modern Japan<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/jonathan-thumas.html" target="_blank">Jonathan Thumas</a> explores the Japanese conch shell trumpet associated with practitioners of Shugendo. By studying some different trumpets in museum collections, he argues that their sonic and apotropaic power in rituals and their status in the popular imagination reinforces
their use as talismans. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">MLA citation format: </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Thumas, Jonathan
"The Lion’s Roar: </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Imagining Conch Shell Trumpets in Early Modern Japan" </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web blog post. Material Religions. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">13 January 2016. Web. [date of access]</span></span></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dxXOa3OJxheMLamGR3JUc3PqEzhGYbDfYsObCkgL5xrnaRkgyoXdtgyt-ZsCz5KsXNmFPGbt3E2ozxBHwSGAw' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Played
at key moments in mountain pilgrimage, the Japanese conch shell
trumpet, or <i>hora (horagai) </i>is largely associated with practitioners of
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" target="_blank">Shugendō</a>. In the above video, shot by the author, the<i> hora </i>is being
played after a Shugendō fire ceremony <i>(saito goma)</i>. This often-contested umbrella term refers to a number of separate mountain-based traditions, inflected by esoteric Buddhism, kami worship, and quasi-Taoist practices. As a symbol of these mountain practitioners <i>(shugenja or yamabushi)</i>, the<i> hora</i> adorns lineage seals, ritual altars, (figures 1 and 2) and is commonly carried as part of the quintessential mountain ascetic’s ornate garb. The haunting sound of hora being played can still be heard, day and night, near many mountain temple complexes. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This article is part of a larger examination of the <i>hora</i>, its production, use, and imagining during the late Edo (1603-1864) and early Meiji periods (1868-1912). Such foci illuminate the <i>hora </i>beyond its status as a musical instrument or ascetic’s regalia. The present study considers two 19th century <i>hora</i>, both collected by Walter L. Hildburgh (1876-1955), and now housed in the Walter L. Hildburgh Collection of Buddhist religious materials in the Asian Ethnographic Collections of the American Museum of Natural History. I will present these objects and pay attention to the ways in which they would have been used in religious contexts to reveal their status as ritual tools, as opposed to simply being musical instruments. Representations such as relevant visual depictions will further reveal the place of hora within the popular imagination to suggest that, from at least the early modern period, they were sources of apotropaic power and talismanic tools for warding off danger. </span></span><br />
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<a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure1.jpg" height="400" width="241" /></a></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figures 1 and 2: Relief of a hora at Ryūsenji in Dorogawa. Photo by author. 2012.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
<b>Hildburgh’s Trumpets</b> </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Of
the many exemplary <i>hora</i> in museum collections worldwide, two
interesting examples were given to the American Museum of Natural
History by Walter L. Hildburgh in the summer of 1928. Hildburgh was an
antiquarian, known as a collector of talismans, who traveled and
collected throughout Asia. [i] His collection of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofuda" target="_blank"><i>ofuda</i></a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omamori" target="_blank">omamori</a>, the majority of which is now
held in the Pitt-Rivers museum, is unparalleled in its scope and
diversity. Hildburgh also collected thousands of amulets, talismans, and
charms from India, China, and Medieval Europe, publishing articles on
their modalities and functions as both symbols and apotropaia. He also
collected numerous implements and deity statues from Japan accounting
for both home and temple practices. These <i>hora</i>, being typical fare in
his collection of ritual miscellany, were included in the “Japanese
Religious Objects” shipment, numbered 13 out of 22 cases of Hildburgh’s
ethnological and archaeological specimens from Egypt, India, China,
Japan, and Tibet.
The first of Hildburgh’s <i>hora</i>, catalog no. 70.0/3894 (figure 3) is on
permanent exhibit in the <a href="http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent-exhibitions/human-origins-and-cultural-halls/gardner-d.-stout-hall-of-asian-peoples" target="_blank">Gardner D. Stout Hall of Asian Peoples</a> in case
32-A, “Late 19th Century Buddhist Shrine.” It is located at the bottom
of this recreated altar exhibit in an open drawer. 70.0/3894 is included
in the second page for “Japan,” in Hildburgh’s list of items from Japan
from case 13 from 1928, listed by its current catalog number as, “small
conch shell trumpet,” and “ritual object.”<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span>[ii] Although no catalog
measurements exist for this object, this small trumpet appears to be
less than 12cm in length and 7cm wide. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure3.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 3: 70.0/3894. Courtesy of the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History.
</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">A
manuscript record notes that 70.0/3894 was used by <i>yamabushi</i>, though
due to its small size and a poorly made mouthpiece, it seems that it was
not intended to be played or carried into the mountains. [iii] In
modern examples made for use with a similar type of mouthpiece, the
extended prongs are normally filled in with, and covered with, gypsum to
ensure that the mouthpiece remains firmly affixed and does not come off
during use (figure 4). [iv] Any adhesives used to attach the mouthpiece
on 70.0/3894 are minimal. According to Paula Mikkelsen, Associate
Director for Science at the Paleontological Research Institution and its
Museum of the Earth, the shell used for 70.0/3894 is an East Asian
species called Charonica lampas sauliae or “Saul’s Triton,” a small
species, averaging about 12cm long, identified in 1844. [v] </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure4.jpg" height="316" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 4: Contemporary hora displayed outside a craftsman’s shop on Mt. Yoshino. Photo by author. 2012.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Generally
speaking, <i>hora</i> are made solely using the shells of <i>Charonia tritonis</i>, a
large and vibrantly colored species that has long been used as a horn
across the Pacific, favored for their superior sound, color, and
durability. [vi] Early on, <i>tritonis</i> were traded from the Ryukyu
archipelago to China and mainland Japan, initially for fashioning
ornaments and later for use in ritual contexts. [vii] By the 11th
century, their textual basis in scriptures like the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" target="_blank"><i>Lotus Sutra</i></a> created a
significant demand from Buddhist ritualists for the shells. Departing
from the conventions of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist rituals, Japanese
craftsmen never used shells of <i>Turbinella pyrum</i>, a smaller, heavier
species that was favored for its pure white color and in its rarer
sinistral morph, in which the lip turns left, figuring predominantly in
Hindu and Buddhist art in India, Tibet and China. [viii] That 70.0/3894
is of a completely different species makes it quite difficult to
determine why it was made. </span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Considering its size and apparent lack of durability, it is possible
that 70.0/3894 was an altar fixture. For Shingon Buddhist initiates, the
<i>hora </i>was imparted along with other regalia to mark the highest degree
in lineage status following the <i>denbō kanjō</i> consecration rite. At the
end of this ritual, the initiate was given a variety of standard altar
regalia and paraphernalia in tandem with directions on how to read
certain secret texts. These objects, comprising such things as clubs,
crowns, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajra" target="_blank"><i>vajras</i></a> (ritual object
or weapon), also included a <i>hora</i> trumpet. [ix] If this particular
trumpet was ever employed at all, and not a “marketed <i>hora</i>,” which H. Fukui has pointed to as being of similarly crude construction, it is
possible that it was made to be a general fixture for initiations,
similarly to how it is currently displayed in its museum case. [x] That
this could have been an unused piece as part of a larger ritual
assemblage is further suggested by the items that are placed along with
it: a series of bells, lotus scepters, and incense burners. These not
only contribute to the ritual mélange but share the same accession
numbers as well as close catalog numbers (i.e. 1928-58 70.0/3895 and
70.0/3896), which suggest that these may have been a part of a larger
set purchased by Hildburgh around the same time. </span></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The second <i>hora</i> in the Hildburgh collection, catalog no. 70.0/3893
(figure 5), is currently kept in storage, but was previously displayed
in an exhibit hall called “Mollusks and Our World,” in a case exhibiting
the use of mollusks and shells as ritual objects. [xi] A 1975
photograph of this case shows this particular trumpet to have been
accompanied by a photograph of fully garbed mountain ascetics, and is
described as an important ritual instrument for Buddhist practices in
the mountains. This <i>hora</i> is more standard in size for trumpets made to
be used at roughly 32cm in length, 14cm wide, and 12cm high, with a
thick shell. Similar to 70.0/3894, this trumpet appears listed in
shipping case 13 of the Hildburgh accession file for 1928 as “Large
conch shell trumpet,” with its current catalog number. [xii]
</span></span> </span></span></div>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure5.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 5: 70.0/3893. Courtesy of the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History.
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Unlike
the smaller example, 70.0/3893’s mouthpiece is a gold-colored brass or
copper, painted over with a brown lacquer. This <i>hora</i> is also complete
with a symbolic silk umbilical cord, or <i>kainō</i>, which is wrapped around
the lip and splits into two tassels. The cord itself is brown, and the
tassels were at one time a dark blue or black. Unlike 70.0/3894,
70.0/3893 is made using a <i>Charonia tritonis</i> shell. In this case, the
manuscript catalog also notes that this trumpet was used by the
<i>yamabushi</i>, which based on its size, accompaniments, and general quality,
seems a more probable conjecture. As exemplary of pieces that were
meant to be carried and played, just how were instruments such as
70.0/3893 intended to be used?</span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>From Museums to Mountains</b> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><i>Hora</i> production comprised numerous methods, employing a diversity of
materials to make a sturdy trumpet with the perfect sound. Once made, <i>
hora</i> would be carried into the mountains, hanging from the waist of the
ascetic by a silk <i>kainō</i>, and used to mark the beginning of rituals or to
signal other pilgrimage groups in the mountains. [xiii] Miyake Hitoshi,
a prominent scholar of Shugendō, has noted a diversity of uses, with
<i>hora</i> regularly being blown when an ascetic is reciting scripture, giving
orders to acolytes, giving directions during pilgrimage, performing
sermons, and relaying information across mountain valleys. [xiv]
Although its haunting sound is essential to the atmosphere of various
rituals, H. Fukui, an ethnomusicologist, raises issues regarding its use
as a musical instrument. While the mouthpieces themselves can be
manipulated, shells, being animal remains, often significantly differ in
size. As a result, there is no standard pitch for <i>hora</i>, and it has thus
been difficult to standardize <i>hora</i> as instruments to harmonize
perfectly in ensembles. [xv] Furthermore, Fukui notes that lip-vibration
instruments such as the <i>hora</i> are not traditionally part of Japanese
music ensembles, and it only rarely appears in public performances such
as <i>Yamabushi saimon</i>. [xvi] <i>Hora</i> also seem to take a backseat during most
public performance arts such as <i>kagura</i>, only being blown when ascetic
performance troops enter villages. [xvii] It is also rarely used in most
religious hymns and other public vocal arts associated with Tendai and
Shingon affiliated Shugendō traditions. [xviii] Rather, it was almost
always used solely during rites, while in the mountains, and to a lesser
extent, in military settings. As tools for accompanying various rites
and changing, the place of <i>hora</i> in contemporaneous religious song texts
and in the popular arts suggests that they were held as talismanic
objects, for clearing the ritual space of impurity, emitting an
apotropaic sound to ward off harmful mountain animals, baleful spirits,
and toxins. [xix] </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Buddhist scriptures often mention the <i>hora</i>, with its sound when blown
being compared to the roar of a lion, representing both the preaching of
the dharma and the dispelling of factors hindering awakening as the
“voice of the dharma.” [xx] The <i>Lotus Sutra</i>, which became one of the
core scriptures for Buddhist culture throughout East Asia, was from
early times an important textual basis for both ascetic practices in the
mountains, as well as for the use of <i>hora</i> in ritual contexts,
describing it to symbolize the power of the Buddha’s law over malevolent
forces. This is mentioned in the <i>sutra’s</i> first chapter, likening the
sound of the conch to the explication of the dharma. [xxi] Its
association with scripture can also be seen outlined in certain
sectarian writings, which in addition to likening the blowing of <i>hora </i>to
the expounding of the dharma directs the performer to play it in
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentatonic_scale" target="_blank">pentatonic scale</a> degrees, which emulates certain <i>mantras</i> and <i>darani</i>.
[xxii] This seems to have predicated its use in warding off spirits from
ritual settings. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Apotropaic usage of <i>hora</i> can be seen as early as the Heian period in
ritual texts such as the <i>rokuji karinhō</i> or “Six-syllable Water-facing
Ritual,” the second portion in a larger ritual, <i>rokujikyōhō</i>, a
large-scale ritual used to dispel disease. [xxiii] The <i>karinhō</i> portion
of this rite was conducted on ritual boats in the water to drive out
impurity <i>(kegare)</i> from the body of the ritual patron. Chanting of spells
and the playing of a <i>hora</i>, among other instruments, comprised important
measures taken during this purification, to “support and intensify the
cleansing process.” [xxiv]
Although it is difficult to draw broad connections with the <i>hora</i> as it
was used in the Heian period to early modern examples, it has clearly
seen consistent use in ritual settings, especially at various stages in
ritual pilgrimage into the mountains <i>(nyūbu)</i>. For significant Shugendō
mountain pilgrimage sites, such as Mt. Omine and Kumano, there are
various song texts identifying specific points of the pilgrimage where
one should chant and sing. These songs are almost always accompanied by
the blowing of a <i>hora</i>. Edo period song texts in this genre, specifically
focused around pilgrimage on the Omine-Kumano route, include the<i> Buchū
hiden</i>, compiled in 1694, as well as Gyōchi’s (1778-1841) <i>Konohagoromo</i>,
including many of the same songs, as well as variations of those in
Buchū hiden. [xxv] The <i>Buchū hiden</i> in particular was notable for tracing
the movement of <i>shugenja</i> through the ten stages of the poisonous
mountain womb, through which the ascetic would symbolically die and
become gradually reborn along symbolic spots at the mountain pilgrimage,
demarcating stages with songs accompanied by the sound of <i>hora</i>. [xxvi] </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">By the time that Hildburgh’s <i>hora</i> were produced, the ways of using the <i>
hora</i> as an integral part of pilgrimage songs had further systematized
with theoretical commentaries and concise methods of use being laid out.
This field of knowledge was later compiled in the <i>Ryūra hikan</i> by
Kimpusenji affiliate Honma Ryuen in 1940, describing the proper way of
blowing into a <i>hora</i>, called <i>ryūra</i>. [xxvii] Although this text is
significantly later in authorship than both earlier song texts
mentioned, and Hildburgh’s trumpets, it is a culmination of prior
discourses about the <i>hora</i>, integrating earlier methods and texts from
Honma’s Kinpusenji lineage. [xxviii] Honma’s text is a useful platform
from which to consider the ways in which <i>hora</i> were viewed largely as
tools central to ritual protocol and efficacy. Rather than solely
focusing on the method of blowing, however, the methods involved giving
equal attention to the use of the body in relation to the trumpet, even
before blowing into it: </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><i>First, the shell is held with the left and right hands, and then placed
in front of one's chest. One should hold the tassel on the kainō with the
fifth and fourth fingers of the left hand, and weave it through the
palm of that hand. Then, let it hang down straight from the space
between the first and second fingers. While doing this, let out a cry
while simultaneously turning the shell, and then lightly hit the
mouthpiece towards the left of the lip.</i> [xxix] </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Further directions describe how the feet should be positioned, and also
on concentrating energy internally within the body in a point below the
navel. Following this, the player, who has imbibed this knowledge, can
then blow strongly into the <i>hora </i>and raise it to the pitch in various
ways by manipulating his mouth around the mouthpiece [xxx]. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In addition to transmitting bodily protocol for playing the <i>hora</i>,
Honma’s text also introduces a hymn to be chanted when blowing into it.
After blowing, the user chants: “the sound of the <i>hora</i> is <i>Samadhi</i>, the
mysterious lotus doctrine, that sutra that upon hearing worldly desires
are destroyed, and the gate through which the seed syllables enter into
the present,” and hits the mouthpieces three times with the palm to
signify the three bodies <i>(sanshin)</i> of the cosmic Buddha, Dainichi
nyorai. [xxxi] The <i>hora</i> thus becomes essential for entering into
Buddhahood, representing “the inner realization of the preaching of the
wisdom body of Dainichi Nyorai, ringing forth from the depths of the
diamond realm as the Sanskrit ban syllable in its entirety,” a context
in which it is likened to a lion’s roar that quiets both dangerous
animals and evil spirits <i>(akuma)</i>. [xxxii] </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In a comprehensive description of <i>ryūra</i> and its use in terms of
pilgrimage song texts, Miyake notes that in addition to its functions of
clearing the ritual space by being played at points in pilgrimage, the<i>
hora</i> seems to have been played at nearly every turning point in the
pilgrimage, including leaving resting lodges and eating places, as well
as when entering certain locations for the first time. This practice
seems to be rooted in the necessity of warding off wild animals and
angry spirits to make stopping points safer and more habitable. In most
cases that required the <i>hora</i> to be blown then, the reason was less for
the sake of harmonizing with ritual songs, but in being blown before and
after rites, and when entering and leaving sacred areas, as a mechanism
for clearing the ritual space of undesirable presences, both wild and
demonic.
The apotropaic use of the <i>hora</i> throughout pilgrimages was supplemented
by a milieu of ritualized armaments, with mountain ascetics carrying
swords and axes, jingling staffs for warding off bears <i>(shakujō)</i>, and
specially designed headgear <i>(tokin</i> and <i>hangai) </i>to guard them against
poisonous mountain vapors. [xxxiii] Although each object in this ritual
milieu had important symbolic properties for mediating transformative
journeys in the mountains, each was not only symbolic, but actively
warded off harmful mountain spirits. Mountains were often viewed as
quite dangerous. Merely carrying the hora as part of this ritual
ensemble served to protect the ascetic during hazardous mountain treks. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In addition to ascetic mountaineering and song texts, the <i>hora’s</i>
apotropaic qualities when carried also appeared on the battlefield. One
hora from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (MET), housed in the Arms and
Armor Collection and from the Bequest of George C. Stone, numbered
36.25.2997 was carried into battle in a similar way. An officer’s piece,
this <i>hora</i> is distinguished by inscriptions in the lacquer surrounding
the mouthpiece, which is extended though more than 1/4th of the shell
length. Silver characters are overlaid over the lacquer, and the end of
the brass mouthpiece itself is engraved with “faint design[s] of [a]
plum tree, cranes and [a] tortoise.” [xxxiv] While visually appealing,
the catalog card notes that the inscribed images are actually a sort of
repair work, being inscribed on a “built-up black-lacquered paper ”
explicitly used to repair the shell damage. [xxxv] </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">While meant to cover up prior damage, the inscriptions on 36.25.2997
provide insight into the original ownership and use of this piece as a
protective object. According to the catalog card, a man named Atarashi
translated and transcribed the inscriptions on the trumpet into a
six-page document. [xxxvi] He deemed the inscription to have been an
adaptation of a <i>luopan</i>, or geomancer’s disk or compass associated with
Chinese divination practices. According to the analysis of this
inscription, the officer that would have owned this trumpet would have
used this inscribed disk to divine the location of an enemy camp, as
well as interpret “conditions of weather, time of day, month and year,”
as well as divining the means necessary for achieving the best movements
of his troops and “the most auspicious chances for success” in a given
campaign. [xxxvii]
Although blowing a <i>hora</i> to avert harmful forces is proscribed in
numerous early modern sources, evidence suggests that playing the
trumpet in the proper <i>ryūra</i> fashion, and even at all, was not a
prerequisite for accessing its protective qualities. It appears that the
<i>hora</i>, in its very materiality, was viewed as a protective object able
to avert unwanted presences, and even unwanted situations, ensuring
victory in battle as opposed to merely being a musical instrument. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Although blowing a <i>hora</i> to avert harmful forces is proscribed in numerous early modern sources, evidence suggests that playing the trumpet in the proper <i>ryūra</i> fashion, and even at all was not a prerequisite for accessing its protective qualities. It appears that the <i>hora</i>, in its very materiality, was viewed as a protective object able to avert unwanted presences, and even unwanted situations, ensuring victory in battle as opposed to merely being a musical instrument. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Dispelling Snakes and Swords</b> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The <i>hora’s</i> functions as a tool for dispelling wild animals and harmful spirits in the mountains, as well as avoiding failure in battle, appear to have permeated the early modern imagination surrounding it. Contemporaneous visual culture suggests that it was broadly interpreted as a symbol of protection. Representations seem to focus primarily on its ability to avert snakes and dragons, probably stemming from its use in ritual settings in mountains, as well as a protective symbol for the battlefield. Such depictions illuminate our understanding of the early modern Japanese imagination, and specifically, the sorts of things <i>hora</i> were imagined to subdue. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">One example representing the <i>hora</i> as a protective object can be found in the Drummond East Asian Collection in the Asian Ethnographic Collection of the American Museum of Natural History, catalog no. 70.3/1413 (figure 6). This peculiar piece comes from the Dr. I. Drummond Collection transfer (DAA 1961-73), and is part of a 1961 inventory of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okimono" target="_blank"><i>okimono</i></a> from Dr. Drummond’s collection. This ivory piece, described as a “man with rope on conch shell frightened by snake”, measures approximately 6.3cm in length, 4.3cm in width and 12.5cm in height. The ivory is paired with light pigment on the clothing of the man depicted, and as of 11/2/1978, was on display in the AMNH “Shells” exhibit (AMNH, DAA, Manuscript Catalog). It clearly depicts a man standing on a larger-than-life conch trumpet gripping tightly the <i>kainō</i> connected to it, using the massive shell to shield him from a small, but presumably poisonous snake. Interestingly, the man here, although using the trumpet for protection, and further connected to the shell through the umbilical cord-like <i>kainō</i>, is not depicted as a mountain ascetic. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure6.jpg" height="400" width="301" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 6. 70.3/1413. Courtesy of the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">A further example emphasizing the apotropaic qualities of the <i>hora</i> against serpents can be found in a woodblock print from a set of 33 depicting each of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanyin" target="_blank">Kannon</a> from the Saikoku pilgrimage route. This series of prints was a joint effort between famed <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukiyo-e" target="_blank">ukiyo-e</a></i> artists Hiroshige II (1826-1869) and Utagawa Kinisada (or Utagawa Toyokuni III, 1786-1865). The print concerns the Shingon Buddhist temple Daigoji with its founder Shōbō (832-909) blowing into a hora. According to Max Moerman, a scholar of premodern Japanese religion who also owns this particular print, the legend is that Shōbō killed a giant snake that had been terrorizing the mountain practice site on the temple grounds, but gets bitten in the process and must use the pure waters surrounding Daigoji to heal his wounds. [xxxviii] The Saikoku print depicts the aftermath, and shows the victory of the temple patriarch over the wrathful mountain serpent, marked with the fully garbed ascetic blowing into a conch trumpet (figure 7). </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure7.jpg" height="400" width="273" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 7. Saikoku Pilgrimage print. Courtesy of D. Max Moerman, Barnard College.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In both examples, the inclusion of serpents as a representation of mountain spirits and harmful animals is a curious one. Although the current inquiry does not leave the space for a larger discussion, it should be noted that the trope of a Buddhist monk defeating a snake or dragon as the local manifestation of a water or mountain deity is a prevalent convention, permeating much of Buddhist literature throughout Asia. Such tropes appear as much in Indian narratives of the Buddha’s life as they do in Japanese temple origin narratives, describing wandering ascetics as taming local mountain gods for the purpose of finding suitable places to build a cultic center. [xxxix] Serpents were thus useful tropes for representing both mountain spirits and the venomous dangers lurking amongst the peaks. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In addition to examples of depicting <i>hora</i> as useful for averting snakes, further application of its associated protective significance can be seen in examples from the military arts. Early modern examples are featured in a variety of military helmets adorned with <i>hora</i>, or even fashioned to replicate the shape of the conch trumpet, seemingly drawing from its associations with protection from harm. One example (2014.89) is located in the John Woodman Higgins Collection of the Worcester Art Museum (figure 8), dated to 1618. A second (51.620) (figure 9) dates from the 18th century, and is housed at the Walters Art Museum. Both evoke the talismanic qualities of the <i>hora</i> to protect the wearer without having to actually play a trumpet. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure8.jpg" height="316" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 8. 2014.89, “Helmet in the Form of a Sea Conch Shell.” Worcester Art Museum (MA), The John Woodman Higgins Armory Collection. </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure9.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2016/01/thumas/Figure9.jpg" height="400" width="277" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 9. <a href="http://art.thewalters.org/detail/12796/helmet-kawari-kabuto-with-conch-shell-horagai-shape/" target="_blank">51.620. The Walters Art Museum.</a> CC0 license.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Along with the trumpet from the MET, allegedly used in a military context for purposes of divination, the helmets raise questions both about the relationships and distinctions between military and religious use of the <i>hora</i>. This range of use suggests that both mountain ascetics and warriors owned and used <i>horagai</i> for a variety of purposes. Connecting the <i>hora</i> to other pieces of esoteric regalia and weaponry, and tracing its patterns of use between battlefields and sacred mountains may prove fruitful in examining the conch trumpet in military and religious spheres. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Concluding Remarks</b> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Placing Hildburgh’s <i>hora</i> and others within contexts of ritual use and imagining, reconciles the common depictions of the trumpet as protective. The ways in which <i>hora</i> were played in ritual settings as well as its status in the popular imagination reinforce its talismanic status. Through sound, materiality, and scriptural authority, <i>hora</i> warded off danger, transforming text into apotropaic sound. This seems to be characteristic of what Fabio Rambelli has called “non-hermeneutic” uses of texts in much of Japanese Buddhist practice. [xxxx<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">]</span> Japanese scriptures were often favored for their talismanic functions rather than sources for knowledge, being used in rites of healing, transmission, and exorcism. [xxxxi] As opposed to exegesis or pedagogy, the power evoked when blowing into a <i>hora</i> emits as an apotropaic, voiceless incantation, <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">instead of being</span> a legible text. Scripture, broadly speaking, is called on here more for its raw talismanic power than its doctrinal authority. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Acknowledgments:</b> Jonathan would like to thank <a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/laurel-kendall.html" target="_blank">Laurel Kendall</a> and Katherine Skaggs at the American Museum of Natural History, who oversaw this research during their Spring 2015 Asian Ethnology Internship Program. Max Moerman, Michael Como, and fellow graduate students also provided helpful comments during the Spring 2015 seminar, “Sacred Texts as Ritual and Material Objects,” at Columbia University. </span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Notes and References </span></span></span></span></b><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[i] Josef Kyburz, “Ofuda: An Overview.” In <i>Ofuda</i>, ed. Josef Kyburz (Paris College de France, 2014), 349-397. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[ii] American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), Division of Anthropology Archives (DAA) 1928 – 58, “Japan,” p.2. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[iii] AMNH, DAA, Manuscript Catalog. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[iv] H. Fukui, “The Hora (Conch Trumpet) of Japan,” <i>The Galpin Society Journal,</i> vol. 47 (1994): pp. 47-62. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[v] Mikkelsen and Neil Landman, Personal Correspondence, 5/8/2015. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[vi] “Charonia tritonis,” in <i>Guide to seashells of the world</i> (London: Philip's, 2004). In “conchological terms” these are characterized by a “high, pointed spire; coarse, spiral cords and axial ribs on early whorls. Spiral ribs below suture – two on earlier whorls, three on the body whorl being beaded – are broad and flat with a small, narrow rib between. Outer lip flares to form large aperture and expands to form a low ridge before the lip which recurves. These axial ridges and lips show as varices on earlier whorls, one every two-thirds of a whorl, and therefore line up axially on every alternate whorl. Scalloped lip has about fifteen, spiral ribs running into the interior, posterior ones forming pairs of denticles on the lip. Concave columella is strongly and coarsely lirate. Narrowly umbilicate. Short siphonal canal. Creamy white; purple and brown, rounded, scale-like markings on spiral ribs; lip pinky-white; interior of aperture and inner ribs orange; denticles white; columella orange-pink, purple-brown between the lirae (<i>Charonia,</i> 2004).” </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[vii] Kinoshita Naoko, “Shell Trade and Exchange in the Prehistory of the Ryukyu Archipelago,” <i>Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association</i>, Vol. 23, The Taipei Papers, Vol. 1 (2003), pp. 67-72. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[viii] "T. Pyrum," in <i>Guide to Seashells of the World</i> (London: Philip's, 2004). In contrast to <i>tritonis, pyrum</i> has a “Moderate spire of about six whorls with adpressed sutures. Inflated body whorl; malleate surface; corded at the posterior end and on the short siphonal canal. Simple outer lip; columella with four plaits, the posterior one the largest, others decreasing towards the anterior; callous parietal wall. White; edge of lip, columella and parietal callus pale peach. This shell also has a thick heavy periostracum.” </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[ix] Fabio Rambelli, “Secrecy in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism.” <i>The Culture of Secrecy in Japanese Religion</i>, ed. Bernhard Scheid and Mark Teeuwen (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), 119. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[x] Fukui, <i>“Hora,”</i> 53; H. Fukui, “A Study of the Hora of the Kinpusenji Temple,” Ongakugaku, Vol. 36 – 1(1990): 29-42. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xi] Service Information from the AMNH Anthropology Division Collections Database notes that it was in a case titled “Spiritual,” and removed in March 5, 2001. This case title does not appear on the 1975 photograph, which instead lists the case as “Ritual Power.” Photograph is by Jim Coxe, 1975, Neg. #5907.
[xii] DAA 1928 – 58. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xiii] Jane Safer Fearer and Frances McLaughlin Gill, <i>Spirals from the Sea: An Anthropological Look at Shells</i> (New York: C.N. Potter, 1982), 175. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xiv] Miyake Hitoshi. <i>Shugendō Jiten</i> (Tokyo: Tokyodo Shuppan, 1986), 397.
[xv] Fukui, “Hora,” 51. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xvi] Fukui, “Hora”; Nakajima Hiroko, “Saimon,” Kokugakuin Daigaku Encyclopedia of Shinto: <a href="http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=1314">http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=1314</a> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xvii] Irit Averbuch, <i>The Gods Come Dancing: A Study of the Japanese Ritual Dance of Yamabushi Kagura</i> (Ithaca: Cornell University East Asia Program, 1995), 91-92. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xviii] Ouchi Fumi, “ The Lotus Repentance Liturgy of Shugendō: Identification from Vocal Arts,” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie Vol. 18, <i>Shugendō: L’histoire et la culture d’une religion japonaise</i> (2009): pp. 169-193. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xix] Miyake, jiten; H. Byron Earhart, <i>A Religious Study of the Mount Haguro Sect of Shugendō: An Example of Japanese Mountain Religion</i> (Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1965). </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xx] Averbuch, <i>Gods Come Dancing,</i> 92. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxi] <i>Lotus Sutra: A Contemporary Translation of a Buddhist Classic,</i> trans. Gene Reeves (Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2008), 64-65. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxii] Fukui, “Hora”; Fukui, “Kinpusenji.” </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxiii] Benedetta Lomi, “Dharanis, Talismans, and Straw-Dolls: Ritual Choreographies and Healing Strategies of the Rokujikyōhō in Medieval Japan,” <i>Japanese Journal of Religious Studies</i> 41, 2 (2014): 256. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxiv] Ibid., 278. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxv] Gorai Shigeru, “Shugendō Lore,” <i>Japanese Journal of Religious Studies</i> Vol. 16, No. 2/3, <i>Shugendō and Mountain Religion in Japan,</i> (1989): 133. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxvi] Miyake, <i>"jiten</i>,” 331. See “Buchū hiden,” <i>Nihon daizōkyō Shugendō shōso</i> Volume I (Tokyo: Kokusho Kankōkai, 2000). </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxvii] Fukui, “Hora.” </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxviii] Ibid., 50. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxix] Miyake, jiten, 397. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxx] Ibid. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxxi] Ibid., 347 and 397. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxxii] Ibid., 397. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxxiii] Earhart, “Haguro.” </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxxiv] Metropolitan Museum of Art (MET) Arms and Armor Card Catalog # 105373. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxxv] Ibid. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxxvi] This addition was made in 5/3/2011. I was given access to this document on 5/1/2015 by Donald La Rocca, Curator of Arms and Armor at the MET. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxxvii] Metropolitan Museum of Art (MET) Arms and Armor Card Catalog # 105373. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxxviii] Personal Correspondence, 4/19/2015. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxxix] Caleb Carter. <i> Producing Place, Tradition and the Gods: Mt. Togakushi, Thirteenth through Mid-Nineteenth Centuries</i> (Dissertation, UCLA, 2014). </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxxx] Fabio Rambelli, <i>Buddhist Materiality: A Cultural History of Objects in Japanese Buddhism</i> (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007), 89. </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxxxi] Ibid.
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-318623254522547822015-12-29T20:28:00.001-08:002015-12-29T20:28:05.103-08:00Replicating the Holy Land in the U.S. (a ‘Materializing the Bible’ Road Trip)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/james-bielo.html" target="_blank">James S. Bielo</a> analyzes a practice of religious replication: re-creations of Holy Land sites in the United States. Such replications invite visitors into an experience of sensorial and imaginative immersion, marshaling indexical techniques for materializing the Bible. Replicating the Holy Land is a strategy for actualizing the virtual problem of authenticity, a problem that animates any and every lived expression of Christianity. To explore this phenomenon, we indulge another national tradition: the great American road trip. This essay emerges from a larger project, <a href="http://www.materializingthebible.com/" target="_blank">Materializing the Bible</a>, curated by Bielo. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Bielo</span>, <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">James S</span><i>. </i></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Replicating the Holy Land in the U.S.</span> </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">(a ‘Materializing the Bible’ Road Trip)"</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions</i>. <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">30</span> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">December</span> 2015. Web. [date of access]</span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Holy Lands </span></span></span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Edward Robinson – an American Bible scholar – penned the first major account of <i>Holy Land geography: Biblical Researches in Palestine</i> in the Year 1838. That same year, the SS Great Western initiated the era of commercial trans-Atlantic steamship travel. In this new era a particular journey became both more possible and more attractive for a mass middle-class public: American Christians seeking the sites made famous by scripture and Robinson. The historian Stefanie Rogers neatly captures this evangelical esprit in her study of Protestant travel narratives: “The ‘fifth gospel’ (i.e. the Holy Land) became a way to skip centuries of ecclesiastical corruption and excess…to return to the basic, original, and undeniable truths of the Gospel.” [i] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Realizing that not everyone would be able to take that Holy Land trip, pastors, missionaries, and entrepreneurs decided that the revelatory power of biblical places could still be felt by those at home through material acts of replication. These building projects on American soil had the added effect of linking two Promised Lands: scriptural and national. There have been at least 15 American Holy Land replications, dating to the late 19th century (see Appendix A). They range in scope from single sites (e.g., the Garden Tomb) to topographic models and Jerusalem cityscapes. Why have American Christians been so prolific in replicating the Holy Land to and for themselves, often with significant expenses of time, labor, finances, and energy? I argue that the imperative to re-construct, re-create, and re-present Holy Land sites at home is not merely a teaching tool (though, the sites do teach) or a performance of biblical commitment (though, it usually is). The imperative to replicate is a way to <i>express an organizing problem that is constitutive of Christianity itself</i>. To glimpse the work accomplished through Holy Land replications, we can plan a road trip to visit a few of these sites. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/12/bielo/Figure1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/12/bielo/Figure1.jpg" height="325" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Figure a: Screenshot of American Holy Land replication locations. See Appendix A for corresponding numbers. </span></td></tr>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Get your kicks… </span></span></span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">America’s first Holy Land replication was sculpted from, and into, the earth; just south of Lake Erie in New York’s far southwestern corner, on the shores of Chautauqua Lake. In 1874 the Chautauqua Institution created a 400-foot model of biblical Palestine, part of the Institute’s broader project to train Methodist Sunday School teachers. In the model’s re-created landscape, Chautauqua Lake was transformed into the Mediterranean Sea. Visitors were taken to the model by boat, encouraged to see themselves as stepping off onto scriptural territory. Biblical scholars presented lectures to audiences who looked out onto miniature representations of mountains, rivers, seas, and, of course, cities. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Figure b: Early 20</span><sup style="font-family: Arial;">th</sup><span style="font-family: "arial";"> century souvenir postcard of Palestine Park. [ii]</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Chautauqua’s landscape model establishes two important themes. First, the explicit goal of Holy Land replication is pedagogical. It is, and always has been, a kind of Bible study: learning the land promised a better learning of the text. Second, the strategies used in this learning marshal materiality to simultaneously engage the senses and the imagination. By inviting audiences into a re-created landscape, Chautauqua capitalized on the immersive impact of role-playing in a themed setting. Emplacement was the goal, and the material environment, natural and human-shaped, was the means. The intellectual and affective force of immersion was furthered by Chautauquans’ use of clothing, often attending lectures dressed in Middle Eastern cloaks and robes. As the religion scholar Burke Long described it: “Realism was the driving aim, fantasy the enabling impulse.” [iii] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Waterbury, Connecticut is a small de-industrialized city 435 miles east of Chautauqua. Here, from 1955 to 1984, an 18-acre park, Holy Land USA, featured miniature replications of Jerusalem and Bethlehem sites. Holy Land USA was built amid the post-World War II boom, one year before the Interstate Highway system began construction, and experienced 40,000 annual visitors during its peak years. It closed amid the rapid decline in manufacturing labor that swept America’s northeastern Rust Belt. The park sat dormant, corroding and overgrown, until local business interests purchased it in June 2013 for $350,000. Their aim is to restore and reopen, as the buyers’ Mission Statement describes it, “an historic, cultural, and educational landmark honoring religious and spiritual traditions.” [iv]
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">One hundred and fifty miles south of Waterbury is Ocean Grove, set on New Jersey’s Atlantic shore. In 1869 a Holiness Methodist movement developed a camp meeting in what was a sleepy seaside town. The camp was intended to be a site where leisure, escape from the city, and spiritual regeneration would meld together. In 1879, five years after Chautauqua’s debut, Ocean Grove added a scale model of 19th century Jerusalem to its attractions. Audiences were led on virtual tours, mimicking the Palestinian tours that became immensely popular following the American Civil War. A 1919 description by an Ocean Grove Camp Meeting Association trustee boasted that the model has 1,200 miniature trees, cost $2,500 to create (~$57,000 in today’s money), and was, “So accurate in the reproduction that scores of travelers who have visited Jerusalem have found keen delight in identifying its different sections and even individual buildings.” [vi] This emphasis on material and historical accuracy is crucial for the intended immersion. Historian Troy Messenger writes: “The experience of ‘awe’ at a visual representation of the holy sounds distinctly un-Protestant. But because the model was an ‘exact’ representation, to visit it was somehow to visit the real city, not just because it was the educational equivalent but because it was also the spiritual equivalent.” [vii] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Another Holy Land USA opened in 1972 in the rural Blue Ridge Mountain town of Bedford, Virginia – 400 miles south of Ocean Grove. Family owned and operated, the sprawling 245-acre farm featured re-creations of Bethlehem’s nativity scene, Nazareth, the Jordan River, the Sea of Galilee, Jericho, the Dead Sea, Gethsemane, Calvary, Joseph’s Garden Tomb, and the Mt. of Olives. To heighten the immersive experience of transportation away from the here and now, Virginia’s Holy Land used tactics like importing sand from the Negev Desert. Interestingly, this sand was not scattered on the ground for visitors to walk on, it was displayed with signage for visitors to view and consider. In this immersive act, the sand was more a venerated object than a natural element for purifying the landscape. Much like Connecticut’s Holy Land, economic solvency has (at least temporarily) won out, and the Bedford site closed to public tours in 2009. [viii] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Nine hundred miles west of Bedford, nestled in the Ozark Mountains, is the Great Passion Play in Eureka Springs, Arkansas. Opened in 1968, the grounds feature several attractions in addition to its Passion Play theatre, including the Holy Land Tour: a 2-hour “interactive experience.” The Holy Land Tour site invites visitors to “explore the ancient Middle Eastern culture in which Jesus was raised and meet characters from the time of Moses to the time of Christ.” The Holy Land Tour offers measured assurances that all exhibits “have been researched for historical accuracy and have been recreated as authentically as possible.” [ix]</span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Figure e: The Last Supper display at the Great Passion Play’s Holy Land (Eureka Springs, Arkansas) [x]</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The Explorations in Antiquities Center (EAC) in La Grange, Georgia lies 650 miles southeast of Eureka Springs. [xi] La Grange is a small city of ~30,000 people, one hour drive southwest of Atlanta. The EAC was founded in 2005 by a theologically trained archaeologist who has worked on excavations in Israel-Palestine since 1973. The Center sits on the city's western edge, nestled amid a light industrial corridor, and receives ~12,000 visitors per year. The site's self-described mission is to "help people encounter the ancient biblical world through its history and culture."</span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Figure f: Inside the "Typical Goat Hair Tent" at the Explorations in Antiquities Center (La Grange, Georgia). Photo by author.</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Figure g: Main corridor of the "Archaeological Garden" at the Explorations in Antiquities Center (La Grange, Georgia). Photo by author.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The EAC's main display ("the archaeological garden") emphasizes household and agricultural aspects of "ancient biblical" life, including a goat hair tent, grape stomping vat, sheepfolds tombs, threshing materials, olive press and crusher, watchtower, underground grain silo, and vineyard. Each replica is explained on a self-guided map and posted signage, and each is linked with an Old and/or New Testament text. Other features include an archaeological showcase of over 200 "ancient artifacts" from biblical lands. These artifacts are on loan from the Israel Antiquities Authority and are housed behind glass in a separate, tornado-proof enclosure where photographs are not allowed. In the main building visitors in groups of ten or more can arrange a 90-minute "biblical meal" in rooms that replicate a first century dining experience. [xii] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The archaeological garden is thoroughly sensorial. The area is mostly outdoors (with partial covering and a few covered replicas), which means visitors feel the day's weather conditions. As you progress on the self-guided tour you walk on loose, sandy gravel. You are surrounded by varieties of Middle Eastern plants and trees, lending the aroma of native flora. Roosters call from an enclosed cage and flying birds chirp. There are numerous interactive elements: ascending a hill to stand in the watchtower, descending down steps to the bottom of the grain silo, pushing the olive crusher, touching the coarse and firm goat hair tent. The next addition was in the making as of summer 2015. EAC’s founder purchased acreage adjoining the current site, where he plans to construct a walking map of the Holy Land - from the Negev north to the Galilee. The idea of a walking map reprises the primary strategy of America's first re-created Holy Land, Chautauqua's biblical Palestine. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">America’s most (in)famous Holy Land replica resides 430 miles southeast of La Grange: Orlando, Florida’s Holy Land Experience (HLE). Built on 15 acres, 11 miles northeast of Walt Disney World, HLE opened in February 2001, struggled financially, and was purchased in June 2007 for $37 million by Trinity Broadcasting Network: the thriving, transnational Pentecostal media corporation. Among the park’s many attractions and exhibits, is a floor model of Jerusalem circa 66 AD. HLE claims it is the largest indoor replica of Jerusalem in the world. [xiii]
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Figure h: Jerusalem floor model at the Holy Land Experience (Orlando, Florida). Photo by author. </span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Several dominating features arrest your attention as you walk through HLE. A continuous soundscape of upbeat Christian music plays from overhead speakers: alternating among contemporary, gospel, and traditional hymns. The multi-cultural, multi-lingual crowd is equally striking: even casual eavesdropping recognizes varieties of accented English, from West Indian to North African, and a significant presence of Latino Spanish. Then, there is the dominant aesthetic of gold coloring and, seemingly everywhere, mirrors (which accomplish the triple effect of enlarging the feel of space through illusion, eliminating the need for backdrop designs, and forcing visitors to confront their reflections). </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The Jerusalem Model room is more purple than gold. The model is situated by cardinal direction and a replica of the Western Wall is to the model’s east, complete with artificial weeds sprouting from crevices. The floor on the east-west sides incline slightly, enhancing the bird’s eye view when circling around the model. The wooden floor creaks beneath the worn, yet plush, purple carpet. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Four 30-minute guided presentations of the model are performed every day at staggered times. The first begins promptly at 10:30am. Dr. Bill, a pilgrimage guide to the actual Holy Land in his early 70s, steps onto a tiny square of a speaking platform atop the model. He jokes in a literalist register when first stepping up: “The Bible says there were giants in the land, and here I am.” Speaking with a headset mic, Dr. Bill uses a flashlight to highlight exact locations on the model throughout his presentation. Crowds listen attentively, sitting in chairs or leaning against the model’s sides, periodically snapping photos with iPhones, point-n-shoots, and more professional cameras. Dr. Bill’s presentation was a mix of historical claims, identifying the locations of biblical scenes, and scripturally relevant, Protestant-inflected anecdotes. For example, visitors learn: this was Jerusalem at its population peak of roughly 90,000 people, four years before the Roman invasion; Herod was as architecturally gifted as he was morally wicked; Satan tempted Jesus to jump from the temple’s highest point; the location of the Last Supper’s Upper Room in the city; and the temple steps where Peter and Jon healed a man in chapter three of the Book of Acts. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Visitors also learn that today’s valley is 42 feet higher than that represented in the model. This mimics anthropologist Jackie Feldman’s description of an erasure that regularly occurs among Holy Land pilgrimage groups, in which earlier periods are ignored as “oriental clutter” that obscure scriptural truth. [xiv] Dr. Bill closes his grand historical narrative with a modest ambition: “I hope the scriptures come a bit more a live with the model in your mind,” then invites his audience to purchase a laminated model map to enhance Bible study back home.</span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Replication as Actualization </span></span></span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">American Christians have invested incredible time, energy, money, attention, and enjoyment in re-creating Holy Land sites. Why? Why might this practice – characterized as it is by partiality, multiple mediations, and imaginative leaps – have such cultural continuity and purchase? An obvious response is an appeal to evangelical Biblicism: as Dr. Bill said, it’s about making the scriptures come alive. This answer is not incorrect, but perhaps it is incomplete. I want to venture another answer, one not grounded in evangelical textual ideologies. Re-creating the Holy Land is a strategy for actualizing a problem that animates any and every lived expression of Christianity. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The terms "actualize" and "problem" have particular theoretical import. They derive from anthropologist Jon Bialecki's attempt to theorize how we can meaningfully differentiate among the dizzying pluralities of global Christianity while still maintaining a coherent, identifiable notion of a shared Christianity. [xv] He borrows from French philosopher Gilles Deleuze to argue for an understanding of Christianity in virtual terms; that is, as existing in a state of not-yet-actualized potential. As a virtual object, Christianity is not defined by beliefs, practices, or institutions; each of these are already kinds of actualizations. Instead, virtual Christianity is defined by problems that require resolution. Ultimately, the dizzying pluralities of global Christianity (and their attendant beliefs, practices, and institutions) are all attempts to resolve a shared bundle of problems. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">One such problem is what we might call the problem of Christian authenticity. All Christians must reckon with an irreducible fact: they are separated from the original version of their faith – all temporally and many geographically, linguistically, and culturally separated. The historian Paul Conkin, in tracing the development of new religious movements in America, articulates the problem this way: “In some sense, almost all new Christian movements have advertised their return to an early or pure New Testament church.” [xvi] Theologian John Milbank observes it another way: “the history of Christianity is, unsurprisingly, the history of the failure to live up to the radicalism of ‘incarnation’ from the very outset.” [xvii] As a core virtual problem, there are any number of ritualized, experimental, and institutionalized practices that are strategies for resolving this dilemma of authenticity. Holy Land replications, oriented as they are toward maintaining a sacred memory, are one such strategy. But, again, why? Why is this particular strategy equally attractive to Methodists in the 1870s and Pentecostals today? </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">To begin, replications are about constructing and asserting historical claims. They are statements about how things were and what really happened. They highlight that defining the true past is what is up for grabs in the field of history-making. As the historian Raphael Samuel wrote: “History is not the prerogative of the historian, nor even, as postmodernism contends, a historian’s ‘invention.’ It is, rather, a social form of knowledge; the work, in any given instance, of a thousand different hands.” [xviii] Our remit is to understand whose hands are doing what and that those thousand hands do not work in concert. The present is a horizon of multiple historical narratives competing for cultural authority. The past, then, is the object of struggle, not merely a site where struggle once took place. The anthropologist Ed Bruner forwards a similar argument in his study of American national memory at the Abraham Lincoln living history museum in central Illinois: “the issue of authenticity merges into the notion of authority. The more fundamental question to ask here is not if an object or site is authentic, but rather who has the authority to authenticate, which is a matter of power-or, to put it another way, who has the right to tell the story of the site.” [xix]</span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Figure i: Hilltop view at Fields of the Wood Bible Park (Murphy, North Carolina). Note the replica of "the Garden Tomb" in the near front semi-circle. Photo by author.</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">Figure j: Close-up view of "the Garden Tomb" at Fields of the Wood Bible Park (Murphy, North Carolina). Photo by author</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Replicating Holy Land sites highlights how material registers promise particularly potent actualizing potential because they construct historical claims to authenticity through indexicality. Marshaling naturalized connections suggests an unmediated connection to the biblical past. The most pervasive indexical strategy is the use of natural materials from biblical lands to construct Bible-based sites. Recall Bedford, Virginia’s Holy Land USA and the use of Negev sand. The Explorations in Antiquities Center makes numerous indexical appeals. Their biblical meals are comprised of foods native to Israel-Palestine, such as "fruits, dates, nuts, [and] pita bread." [xx] The archaeological garden is scattered with flora named in scripture, trees and shrubs offering biblical aromas and textures. There are also trickster indexicalities. Walking through the garden you notice white stone scattered throughout the space, conjuring the image of biblical landscapes. This is illusion. All of the site’s white rocks are Alabama limestone, which very closely approximate the hue of Holy Land geological material. Illusory or not, the indexicality at work in stones, flora, and food operates through embodied registers, establishing natural connections to the biblical past through sensory experiences of taste, tactility, and smell. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Replications thrive on making the immaterial material. Chautauqua produced a biblical landscape to be walked; the Holy Land Experience produced a model to be consumed directly at close range. Immersive tactics and techniques are at work. Chautauquans approached Palestine Park via boat on the lake-cum-Mediterranean Sea, and guests arrived to biblical teachings dressed in Middle Eastern garb. Chautauqua and Virginia’s Holy Land imported natural elements of Dead Sea water and Negev sand. Through Dr. Bill’s narration, visitors to the Holy Land Experience envision the precise location of biblical events. Across these sites immersion works toward authenticity in multiple ways: engaging the human sensorium, triggering imaginative capacities, and transporting an audience from the here and now to the there and then. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Historical immersion – unlike its sibling, fantasy immersion – must confront the problem of erasure. To remember an actual place in time can only ever be a partial remembering. In the case of Holy Land replicas, the partiality is tense: eliminating Jews and Muslims from the landscape is politically, ideologically, and racially charged. Forgotten in most writing about the Holy Land Experience is that other erasures are performed in service of historical immersion. After visiting HLE, I reflected on the fact that the culture war issues dominating contemporary evangelicalism and fundamentalism (such as same-sex marriage) are absent from the site. This is quite different from other Christian leisure destinations, such as the Creation Museum in Kentucky, where the culture wars play a dominant, organizing role. [xxi] At least in the most public spaces of Orlando’s Holy Land, the logic of immersive entertainment trumps other cultural commitments. Inciting abortion activism threatens to disrupt the imagining of first century Jerusalem. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Whatever else acts of replication are – entrepreneurial ambition, evangelistic fervor – I understand them as a strategy for actualizing one of Christianity’s constitutive virtual problems. Viewed in this way, it is little surprise that HLE’s Jerusalem model is structured as it is. The art historian Annabel Wharton captures this well in her analysis of the park: “[Herod’s] Jerusalem was the Christian city in its purest apostolic form, untainted by the decadence of the Eastern Christian Empire or the excesses of the Catholic crusades.” [xxii] Framed by purple walls and carpet, led by Dr. Bill in safari gear four times a day, six days a week, the purest apostolic form is remembered and retold, and an authoritative claim on the past is made. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>Appendix A: List of U.S. Holy Land replications, past and present</b></span></span></span></div>
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<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 41.4pt;" valign="top" width="41"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="189"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">19<sup>th</sup> century scale model*<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 171.0pt;" valign="top" width="171"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ocean Grove, New Jersey<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1879<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 41.4pt;" valign="top" width="41"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="189"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Oasis of Peace <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 171.0pt;" valign="top" width="171"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Washington, DC<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1899<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 41.4pt;" valign="top" width="41"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="189"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ave Maria Grotto<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 171.0pt;" valign="top" width="171"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cullman, Alabama<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1934<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 41.4pt;" valign="top" width="41"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="189"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fields of the Wood Bible Park<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 171.0pt;" valign="top" width="171"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Murphy, North Carolina<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1944<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 41.4pt;" valign="top" width="41"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="189"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Holy Land, USA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 171.0pt;" valign="top" width="171"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Waterbury, Connecticut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1955<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 41.4pt;" valign="top" width="41"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="189"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Garden of Hope<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 171.0pt;" valign="top" width="171"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Covington, Kentucky<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1958<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 41.4pt;" valign="top" width="41"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="189"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Palestine Gardens<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 171.0pt;" valign="top" width="171"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lucedale, Mississippi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1960<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 41.4pt;" valign="top" width="41"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="189"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Great Passion Play<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 171.0pt;" valign="top" width="171"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Eureka Springs, Arkansas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1968<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 10;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 41.4pt;" valign="top" width="41"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="189"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">House of Mary Shrine<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 171.0pt;" valign="top" width="171"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Yankton, South Dakota<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1971<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 11;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 41.4pt;" valign="top" width="41"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="189"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Holy Land, USA*<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 171.0pt;" valign="top" width="171"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bedford, Virginia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1972<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Holy Land Experience<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Orlando, Florida<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.0pt;" valign="top" width="72"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2001<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">13<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Explorations in Antiquities Center<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">La Grange, Georgia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Garden Worship Center<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Belleview, Florida<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In progress<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">15<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ghost Town in the Sky<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Maggie Valley, North Carolina<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In progress<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">End<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">notes</span></span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[i] Stephanie Stidham Rogers, <i>Inventing the Holy Land: American Protestant Pilgrimage to Palestine, 1865-1941 </i>(Lanham: Lexington Books, 2011). Cf. Hillary Kaell, <i>Walking Where Jesus Walked: American Christians and Holy Land Pilgrimage.</i> (New York: NYU Press, 2014). </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[ii] Source: <a href="http://isabellaalden.com/2014/10/16/a-tour-of-chautauqua-palestine-park/">http://isabellaalden.com/2014/10/16/a-tour-of-chautauqua-palestine-park/</a> </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[iii] Burke O. Long, <i>Imagining the Holy Land: Maps, Models, and Fantasy Travels. </i>(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003); cf. Erin L. Hasinoff, <i>Faith in Objects: American Missionary Expositions in the Early Twentieth Century </i>(New York: Palgrave, 2011) on other immersive uses of native clothing. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[iv] <a href="http://holylandwaterbury.com/index.php/features/articles/47-mission-statement">http://holylandwaterbury.com/index.php/features/articles/47-mission-statement</a> </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[v] Source: <a href="http://www.messynessychic.com/2013/10/04/holy-land-usa-before-after-the-abandoned-christian-theme-park/">http://www.messynessychic.com/2013/10/04/holy-land-usa-before-after-the-abandoned-christian-theme-park/</a> </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[vi] Troy Messenger, <i>Holy Leisure: recreation and religion in God’s Square Mile</i> (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999): 106. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[vii] Messenger 1999: 111-12. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[viii] Timothy K. Beal, <i>Roadside Religion: In Search of the Sacred, the Strange, and the Substance of Faith</i> (Boston: Beacon, 2005). </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[ix] All quotes in this section are from: <a href="http://www.greatpassionplay.org/holy-land.html#.VmCnUI_BzGc">http://www.greatpassionplay.org/holy-land.html#.VmCnUI_BzGc</a> </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[x] Source: <a href="http://www.greatpassionplay.org/holy-land.html#.VmCnUI_BzGc">http://www.greatpassionplay.org/holy-land.html#.VmCnUI_BzGc</a> </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xi] This description is based on the author’s field notes from the site in May 2015. The site’s website is <a href="http://www.explorationsinantinquity.net/">www.explorationsinantinquity.net/</a> </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xii] Cf. Amos S. Ron and Dallen J. Timothy, The land of milk and honey: biblical foods, heritage, and Holy Land tourism. <i>Journal of Heritage Tourism</i> 8(2013): 234-247. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xiii] This description is based on the author’s field notes from the site in March 2014. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xiv] Jackie Feldman, Constructing a Shared Bible Land: Jewish Israeli guiding performances for Protestant pilgrims. <i>American Ethnologist</i> 34(2007): 351-374. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xv] Jon Bialecki, Virtual Christianity in an age of nominalist anthropology. <i>Anthropological Theory</i> 12(2012): 295-319. </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xvi] Paul Conkin, <i>American Originals: Homemade Varieties of Christianity. </i>(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997). </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xvii] John Milbank. <i>“A Closer Walk on the Wild Side.” Varieties of Secularism in a Secular Age,</i> edited by Michael Warner, Jonathan VanAntwerpen, and Craig Calhoun. (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2010). </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xviii] Raphael Samuel, <i>Theatres of Memory. Vol 1: Past and Present in Contemporary Culture.</i> (London, New York: Verso, 1994). </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xix] Ed Bruner, Abraham Lincoln as Authentic Reproduction: A Critique of Postmodernism. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 96 (1994): 397-415 </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xx] Ron and Timothy 2013: 9 </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxi] For an analysis of Kentucky’s Creation Museum see: Ella Butler, God is in the Data: Epistemologies of Knowledge at the Creation Museum. <i>Ethnos</i> 75(2010): 229-251; and, James S. Bielo, “Creationist History-Making: Producing a Heterodox Past.” <i>Lost City, Found Pyramid: Understanding Alternative Archaeologies and Pseudoscientific Practices, </i>edited by Jeb J. Card and David S. Anderson. (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, Forthcoming 2016). </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">[xxii] Annabel Jane Wharton. <i>Selling Jerusalem: Relics, Replicas, Theme Parks.</i> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006).
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-44800521686916011742015-12-16T13:16:00.000-08:002015-12-16T13:17:34.068-08:00The Religious Book as Object: An Interview with Dorina Miller Parmenter<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/dorina-parmenter.html" target="_blank">Dorina Miller Parmenter</a> approaches the book as object<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">, </span>inspired by her material
explorations as a former book artist as well as a desire to understand
why and how the book has come to be so important in religion, especially
the Judeo-Christian tradition. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Mohan, Urmila and Dorina Miller Parmenter<i> </i></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"The Religious Book as Object:</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">An Interview with Dorina Miller Parmenter "</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions</i>. 16 December 2015. [date of access]</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">UM: How did you get interested in materials and objects in religion? </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DMP: I was an art major in college, focusing on crafts rather than the so-called fine arts, and then went to graduate school where I studied ceramics and metalsmithing. I finished my degree in art by studying the history and designs of Medieval treasure bindings and creating my own jeweled and enameled covers for books that I bound. When exhibiting the finished products, the queries that I received most from viewers concerned the contents of the books, implying that the texts must be special to warrant such attention on the covers. Upon discovering that the books had blank pages, the disappointed viewers often shared their take-away lesson with me: “Well, I guess you shouldn’t judge a book by its cover.” </span></span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/parmenter/Figure1_sm.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/parmenter/Figure1_sm.jpg" height="320" width="264" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Relic of the Inquisition (Diary 85) </b>1995; paper, leather, sterling sliver, enamel, and stones; </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #0b5394;">5.5 x 5.5 x 1.25 in. Photo courtesy of Dorina Miller Parmenter.</span></span></td></tr>
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</span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">After I got over my irritation that people seemed more concerned with the implied but absent text than they were appreciative of the art that I had created, I realized my own take-away lesson: people do judge books by their covers, among other things. The material elements of a book—including its cover, its size, the materials used to make it, where it is kept, how it is used, and so on—send signals about its purpose and value. When I then went to graduate school to study religion, my attention was drawn to the significations of the material elements of religious scripture, which seemed to be overlooked in textual hermeneutics as well as in ritual studies. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">I no longer practice book arts, although every now and then I conduct basic bookbinding workshops to invite people to think about the materiality of books or the impact of different ways of presenting writing.
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Linda's Clan (Diary 90)</b> 1996; paper, leather, brass, fine silver, enamel, and stones; </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">7 x 7.5 x 1.5 in. Photo courtesy of Dorina Miller Parmenter.</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">UM: Do you approach ‘religious books’ and ‘texts’ as sacred objects or sacred knowledge? </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DMP: My view is that the attribution of ‘sacred’ to books and texts comes from the material practices that surround them as objects more than from the meaning of the words conveyed by the text. My mentor and colleague, James Watts, articulated this well in <a href="http://www.equinoxpub.com/journals/index.php/POST/article/vhttp://www.equinoxpub.com/journals/index.php/POST/article/view/4660iew/4660" target="_blank">“The Three Dimensions of Scriptures,”</a> stating that scripture involves the ritualization of three related dimensions of texts: semantic, performative, and iconic. The iconic dimension—the representative and recognizable material form of the text that acts as a signifier separately from the signification of any particular words—is crucial to this formula. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">I conduct most of my research in relation to the iconicity of biblical texts, such as an adorned Torah scroll in a synagogue ark, two arched tablets on a granite monument, or the display of a family Bible within the home. As visual objects they might act as symbols of God’s revelation and/or religious history and tradition, as tangible objects engaged in ritual they might be perceived to act as mediators of divine presence, as images and objects manipulated within particular social contexts they might communicate power and legitimacy.</span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/parmenter/Figure3_sm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/parmenter/Figure3_sm.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"Bishop High Prayer Book", CC BY-NC-SA 2.0, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/diofw/9253814643/" target="_blank">Image Credit</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">While my initial interest in the iconic dimension of the Christian Bible related to lavishly adorned books, recently I have been studying rituals that demonstrate an opposing sentiment. In some sectors of contemporary American evangelicalism it is common to display heavily used or worn-out Bibles, often held together with duct tape. In this case the iconic dimension signifies the piety of the individual user who is intimately bound up with the book, and reveals how the book acts as a mediator of God’s saving grace that “holds together” not only the book but its owner. </span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"Southern T-shirt", CC BY-NC 2.0, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/brent_nashville/2567494430/" target="_blank">Image Credit</a> </span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">UM: Would you agree that the materiality of religious objects tends to be marginalised in religious studies in favor of scriptural exegesis? </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DMP: Fifteen years ago I would have agreed that materiality was marginalized in favor of textual interpretation in religious studies, but I think that a focus on everyday objects has moved more toward the center. This has been furthered by the important and prolific works of David Morgan, S. Brent Plate, Colleen McDannell, and Sally Promley, among others, and the publication of <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rfmr20#.Vgtz01ZMC8E" target="_blank">"Material Religion: The Journal of Objects, Art and Belief</a>." </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">UM: Is there more work to be done in highlighting the importance of religious materiality? </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DMP: I don’t think there can be too much emphasis on materiality in the study of religion. In relation to materiality and scripture, I’ll take this chance to promote the organization <a href="http://script-site.net/" target="_blank">SCRIPT – The Society for Comparative Research on Iconic and Performative Texts</a>. We have sessions at the AAR/SBL annual meeting as well as at some regional and international conferences, and published the anthology <a href="https://www.equinoxpub.com/home/iconic-books-texts/" target="_blank">Iconic Books and Texts</a> in 2013. The conversations around SCRIPT are great because they are cross-cultural, and one can think about new ideas by hearing about issues of materiality and scripture in different traditions.</span></span></span><i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span></span></i></div>
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-18654908545757191902015-12-01T17:17:00.000-08:002015-12-02T23:37:56.208-08:00Paper Offerings: Judaic Themes in the Artwork of Donna Ruff<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span></span> <span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Artist
Donna Ruff takes a well-known iconoclastic act—the destruction of the
book—and invites us to consider this act for its destructive potential
as well as its creative possibilities.</span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure1.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure1.jpg" height="256" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 1: Es-tu comme moi? (Are you like me?), 2008. Lithograph, altered books. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">9 x 21 in. Photo courtesy of artist.</span></span></td></tr>
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<a name='more'></a><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">MLA citation format:</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.dk/p/urmila-mohan.html" target="_blank">Mohan, Urmila</a> and <a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/donna-ruff.html" target="_blank">Donna Ruff</a><i>. </i></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"Paper Offerings:</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Judaic Themes in the Artwork of Donna Ruff "</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions</i>. 2 December 2015. [date of access]</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">To call her work the ‘burning’ or ‘tearing’ of books might be an exaggeration but the form and effect of <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Donna Ruff's</span> art certainly relies on <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">her</span> ability to singe and cut paper in a highly controlled manner. An established book artist who has exhibited globally for the past fifteen years, Ruff expresses her personal relationship with ‘religion’ through evocative manipulations of book pages and newspapers. Encountering her work first at <a href="http://www.artslant.com/ny/events/show/125213-fire-works" target="_blank">an exhibit in 2010</a>, I was struck both by the religious undertones of her work as well as her signature technique of manipulating paper through burning, folding and cutting. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ruff explains that she is Jewish by birth, culture and to a certain extent practice: </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><i>My background has been a defining element in what I am interested in making. My family wasn’t particularly religious, but they did send me to Hebrew school when I was in junior high…as someone who always loved to draw, I was fascinated by the Hebrew letters we were to learn and write. Hebrew script is different than letters in books and I liked writing it, even if I never learned what the letters meant except for some basic words…I still can’t read Hebrew, so the letters are meaningless as words but they are still highly charged as signifiers of my religion.</i> </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">So, why books? </span></span></span><br />
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">I’ve had a very formative experience with books. My grandparents had a scrap paper company in Chicago and one of their suppliers was Field Publications, the publishers of World Book and Childcraft encyclopedias. When the out of date books arrived at the warehouse, the pages were slashed top to almost the bottom so that they couldn’t be resold. My grandmother would rescue the books, carefully taping the pages back together, so that she could give them to us. We were never really bothered by having to read the pages with a piece of yellowing tape holding them together, but the first time my parents bought us a real set of World Book Encyclopedias it was a most exciting and precious gift. The pristine nature of the books made a big impression on me. They were expensive to buy and it meant that my parents had achieved a certain level of financial success. Clearly books were valuable beyond what you could read in them. </span></span></span></i><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Religion is both explicit and implicit in Ruff’s work. I asked her how Judaism had influenced her work. </span></span></span><br />
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Judaism is centered on the Torah and other religious books—Jews are sometimes called “People of the Book.” The ritual of Jewish practice informs my work a great deal. In the synagogue itself, as in most places of worship, there is a separation of congregation from the leaders of the service, who are on a raised platform with a reading podium called the bimah, where the Torah and other prayers are read. Thus to be “called to the bimah” is an honor. On the wall behind the bimah is the sacred ark, a cabinet where the Torah is kept, marked by a lamp above it that is never allowed to be extinguished. </span></span></span></i><br />
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The Torah is a handwritten scroll, beautifully illuminated, encased in an elaborate and jewelled textile to protect it when it’s not being read. Reading it requires copious study beforehand. In addition, it is a circular document—a portion is read each week, according to the Jewish calendar, and at the end of the cycle it is started anew, so it is never-ending. At a certain point in the service the rabbi or an important member of the congregation will take the Torah around through the synagogue to allow congregants to kiss it. You must never touch the Torah—even when following the text when one reads from it, one must use a pointer, called a yad. When the Torah comes to you, it’s customary to first touch the Torah with your prayer book and then lightly kiss the prayer book, or you can touch the Torah with your prayer shawl and then kiss the shawl. These concepts of circularity, necessary action to be allowed to read, highly precious and venerated text and the inability to interpret have all been subtexts in my work. </span></span></span></i><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure2.jpg" height="311" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 2: Nephesh, 2004. Suede backcloth, dye, laser prints on kozo paper, wood stands. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">70 x 12 x 25 in each. Photo courtesy of the artist.</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Performance is invoked in Ruff’s artworks through the actions associated with the Torah as well as the signifiers of text that are manipulated/left intact. “Nephesh”, 2004 (Figure 2) was a site specific installation at the <a href="http://www.eldridgestreet.org/" target="_blank">Eldridge Street Synagogue</a>, Lower East Side, New York. "Nephesh" is the Hebrew word for "soul" or "spirit." Now a museum, The Eldridge Street Project celebrates Congregation Kahal Adath Jeshurun/Anshe Lubz, the oldest synagogue in this country built by and for Eastern European Jews. Five handmade books, representing the Five Books of Moses, or Torah, were placed on movable wooden stands. The text in each was gathered from various sources including archives of the synagogue itself and aspects of Jewish life and culture, specifically the culture of early immigrants living on the Lower East Side of New York. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure3.jpg" height="308" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 3: Rabii, 2013. Screen printed book cloth, handmade abaca, ribbon, acrylic. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">9 x 9 x 7 in. Photo courtesy of the artist.</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">‘Rabii’ (Figure 3) was made for an exhibition honoring those who died in <a href="http://www.salon.com/2005/08/26/culture_2/" target="_blank">an explosion on Al-Mutanabbi Street</a> in Baghdad—the street of booksellers. The word ‘Rabii’ means spring in Arabic. It has no text, just long cut away rectangles indicating where text might have appeared. A green ribbon bears the names of those who died, which Ruff painted carefully in Arabic script, after a professor from Egypt wrote it out for her to copy. Ruff says: <i>It brought me back to those early days in Hebrew school where I could recognize certain letters as they reappeared, but I couldn’t read them. I just enjoyed the act of copying as a ritual of honor and respect. </i></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><i>Islam and Judaism both forbid the use of the figure in religious art and I feel there are many overlaps in beliefs, but of course there is so much enmity that that is not often explored. The titles I use are both Hebrew and Arabic words. Because of political events and my own political biases, I have used imagery that suggests Islamic patterning.</i> </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure4.jpg" height="400" width="265" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 4: 5.14.14, 2014. Cut newspaper. 16.5 x 11.5 in. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Photo courtesy of the artist. </span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ruff’s techniques of material manipulation act as strategies that subvert communication by obscuring and removing content. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><i>So many women artists and academics </i>(in the late 1990s)<i> were exploring the idea of absence and the void, and this was a concept that is particularly relevant to Jewish texts. Two artists whose work I viewed around that time were very influential: Helene Aylon, whose installation <a href="http://www.heleneaylon.com/LiberationofGod.html" target="_blank">“The Liberation of G-d”</a> was in the exhibition “Too Jewish?” at the Jewish Museum, and Ann Hamilton’s <a href="http://www.annhamiltonstudio.com/projects/tropos.html" target="_blank">“tropos”</a> at the Dia Center. Aylon laid transparent parchment paper over the pages of the Torah, then highlighted in pink pen the passages that were misogynist, sanction violence against women, or neglect to mention women’s names. In Hamilton’s installation, a lone figure in the immense Dia space sat at a desk burning lines of text from books. Horsehair covered the floor and the effect was powerful as image and concept but also olfaction, as the smells of smoke and hair filled the air.</i> </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure5.jpg" height="400" width="385" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 5: Fanatic 6, 2014. Burn on book page. 7 x 7 in. Photo courtesy of Donna Ruff.</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In ‘Fanatic 6’ (Figure 5) Ruff creates a circle partly by burning out the text except for the ascendants and descendants and thereby draws our attention to them. Based on another statement by her, these visual ‘remnants’ seem to invoke the actions associated with reading Hebrew where vowels are indicated as various dots and marks. Ruff also noted that there are no vowels included in the Hebrew text of the Torah and one must learn how to read it through instruction and performance. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/ruff/Figure6.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 6: Spreads of Influence, 2010. Burn on book pages. Variable dimensions. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Photo by Urmila Mohan, used courtesy of the artist.</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ruff’s work is not didactic or polemical but she does leave us some clues about her concerns. For instance, the book pages displayed in “Spreads of Influence” (Figure 6) are from a 19th c. letterpress copy of the book “Fanaticism: the outgrowth of enthusiasm” that she picked up at The Strand Bookstore in New York. The readable text of works using pages from the same book, such as <a href="http://www.donnaruffart.com/books-and-book-pages/1/0" target="_blank">“Fan 271”</a>, 2014, and <a href="http://www.donnaruffart.com/books-and-book-pages/1/9" target="_blank">“Fanatic 4”</a>, 2014, bear references to “religion”, “fanaticism” and “god”. A few years ago, the photograph of “Spreads of Influence” was used as a cover image for a <a href="http://www.metiskitap.com/catalog/book/5770" target="_blank">Turkish translation</a> of Alberto Toscano’s book on fanaticism. [i] Ruff’s art had, indeed, come full circle.
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Endnotes </span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[i] Toscano, Alberto (2010). <i>Fanaticism: On the Uses of an Idea.</i> London: Verso. Toscano’s book complicates the use of a term that has dominated debates about faith and secularism. Attempting to overcome the simple either-or of ‘reasonableness’ and fanaticism, Toscano places the fanatic at the very heart of politics, arguing that historical and revolutionary transformations require a new understanding of this role.</span></span></span></div>
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-14604419439523936022015-11-17T17:04:00.000-08:002015-11-17T17:07:42.237-08:00Enacting “Electronic Qur’ans”: Tradition Without a Precedent<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/natalia-suit.html" target="_blank">Natalia Suit</a> describes instances in Egypt in which the Qur'ān is enacted through the daily routines of worship and piety known as the etiquette of the <i>muṣḥaf</i>. These practices, she argues, are inseparably entangled with technology. A book made of paper is not the same as the Qur'ānic text on the screen of a phone. A text visible on the page does not necessarily appear in the same way as its digitized version under a plastic cover. When the medium of the message changes, the etiquette of the <i>muṣḥaf</i> changes as well, and practices are redefined to accommodate this new and unprecedented materiality of the text. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">"Enacting “Electronic Qur’ans”: Tradition Without a Precedent"</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions</i>. 18 November 2015. [date of access]</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In an act of iconoclasm, Terry Jones, pastor of a small nondenominational church in Florida, announced in 2010 that he would <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Jones_%28pastor%29" target="_blank">burn the Quran</a> on the anniversary of 9/11. Soon the press was full of reports about why and where he was planning to do it. Yet the press had it all wrong. Neither Jones, nor anybody else for that matter, could “burn the Quran.” The reason has to do with religious dogma. In Muslim theology, the word “Quran” does not describe a physical book but rather the immaterial message of Allah sent to people through the Prophet Muhammad. </span></span></span></div>
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</style> <span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 1: Contemporary <i>maṣāḥif</i> on display. Photo by author.</span></span>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">What enabled Jones’ iconoclastic move was the fact that the divine message has to be transmitted through material means, including vocal cords, airwaves, stone, parchment, paper, and digital bytes. Undeniably, there is a long and rich tradition of Quranic recitation that is central to Muslim religious practice, yet the emphasis on vocal mediation of the message does not mean that the tangible object that mediates the Quranic text is inconsequential. Muslims have not neglected the corporeal medium of the Quran, whether to beautify it through calligraphy, or to address it through acts of ritual purity, or to treat it with particular forms of deference. Given the persistent presence of the Quranic book in Muslim religious practice (millions of its copies being printed every year in the Middle East) -- and the extreme treatment of its material body in other parts of the world -- it is increasingly hard for me to think of the Quran only in terms of abstract, ethereal message.</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>The Qur’an and a Muṣḥaf: Objects as Actors </b> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Etymologically, the word <i>Quran</i> is derived from the root word <i>qara’a</i> that refers to “reading” or “reciting.” More precisely, <i>Quran</i> means “the spoken message of Allah.” This emphasis on vocal mediation is grounded in the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad himself, who encouraged his companions to memorize and recite the message. “Chant it, for whoever does not chant it is not one of us," says the Prophet in a well-known <i>hadith</i> narrated by Ibn Kathir. [i] There are many accounts like this in addition to verses in the Quran itself that remind Muslims about the importance of recitation. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">As in the past, memorizing the Quran and reciting it aloud constitutes a large part of Muslim religious education in contemporary Egypt. Children learn to recite the Quran in public schools, although in order to memorize the whole message they often have to take additional private classes from licensed instructors. In recent decades the larger mosques and religious centers in Cairo have started offering courses in Quranic recitation. Radio and TV channels broadcast contests featuring Quranic reciters, which are especially popular during the fasting month of Ramadan. Apart from beautiful voices and musical virtuosity, participants in these competitions demonstrate their knowledge of the rules of <i>tajwid</i> -- a particular form of recitation characterized by vocal embellishments. Recitation as a performance elicits strong emotional responses and it is common to see the audience weep during performances of their favorite <i>qari’ </i>(reciter), although a less elaborate form of recitation called <i>tartil</i> (slow and ordinary chanting) may also bring a performer and his listeners to tears. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">But the Quran mediated by voice has also a less evanescent medium in the form of a book -- consisting of pages, binding, and script -- that is called a <i>“muṣḥaf”</i> (read with “s” and “h” pronounced separately) The word muṣḥaf comes from the root <i>“ṣuḥuf”</i> (bound pages) and is primarily understood to refer to the pages that carry the text of the Quran. It is not mentioned in the Quran itself but appears later in scholarly writings about the Quran. Grammatically, unlike the Quran, <i>muṣḥaf </i>has a plural form <i>“maṣāḥif,”</i> indicating an essential difference between the ontological status of the two. One is divine; the other is not. Despite the fact that reporters covering the memorable Burn-the Quran-Day often used the word Quran in plural -- “the Qurans” (as it is customarily done with the Bible, where a proper noun denotes both the content and the object that carries it) -- in Arabic the word Quran does not have a plural form. There is only one Quran – <i>al-Quran</i> – <u>the</u> Quran -- mediated by a tangible book, a <i>muṣḥaf</i>. </span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 2: This old postcard showing a boy reading the Qur’ān was found by the author in one of the antique stores in Cairo. Producer unknown.</span></span></td></tr>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Books as Acting Objects </span></span></span></b><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">It is a <i>muṣḥaf </i>that Terry Jones tried to burn, and it is the state of this book as an object that concerns me here. The precarious state of books as objects was already noticed a century ago by Walter Benjamin in his essay <i>Unpacking my Library</i>, [ii] where he spoke of books not as a source of intellectual enrichment but collectors’ pleasures. However, my approach was directly informed by the writings of historians Roger Chartier, Donald F. McKenzie, and Patrick Hanan, [iii] who specifically concentrate on graphic technologies in a social context. Chartier and McKenzie in particular make it clear that the meaning a text evokes at a particular time cannot be separated from its form, place, and technology of manufacture. Both scholars criticized the tendency to see texts as a category of things whose material form is irrelevant to their use and signification. I share their conviction that treating texts as mere repositories of meaning neglects the corporeality that surreptitiously shapes our responses to them. To study, then, how tangible books mediate the Quran means to ask questions about the potential effects of their material form in the realm in which they circulate: in this case, the realm of Quranic makers, custodians, and users. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A broader theoretical claim informs my inquiry as well: material objects are not hapless bearers of human projections. This contention is informed by a long anthropological interest in material culture (museum collections, archaeology, social use of things). Yet although classified, described, and collected, objects were often treated by anthropologists too narrowly, as merely expressing human ideas and/or as tangible projections of particular social orders. Even seminal works that explicitly focused on the material conditioning of the social order and human self- transformation through production of things (Marx), [iv] or ways in which objects participated in shaping individual’s psyche (Freud), [v] emphasized the importance of things for human purposes and needs, eventually shifting the focus from objects to people. Material worlds, although indispensible, appeared to be somewhat generic. It is true that now and then the ability of individual things to directly interfere in human affairs was acknowledged; for instance in Durkheim’s description of totemic emblems and the importance of their physical presence for the clan’s existence [vi] or Mauss’s argument that particular objects, when exchanged as gifts, created social bonds. [vii] In order to theorize culture one had to take its material component into account, but the focus on people in these accounts tended to leave the relationship between things and people somewhat asymmetrical. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>Symmetrical Relationships</b> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bruno Latour in particular has been telling us for quite a while now that objects do not merely “‘express’ power relations, ‘symbolize’ social hierarchies, ‘reinforce’ social inequalities, ‘transport’ social power, ‘objectify’ inequality, and ‘reify’ gender relations.” [viii] Social theorists may think of them as docile but their action is more varied and their effect is much more ambiguous than such a narrow list of competencies would suggest. On the contrary, they may be at the origin of social affairs by actively participating in formation of assemblies of people and things. It is tracing these assemblies which allows us to see the kinds of agencies that make up the surrounding world. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">My research aims at highlighting the moments in which the <i>muṣḥaf</i> acts independently of, or in addition to, what the Quranic message produces. Let me be clear, though: I do not propose here some sort of idolatry or anthropomorphism in thinking about objects; I do not treat them as somehow willful. I am not trying to turn Muslim doctrine on its head and suggest that a <i>muṣḥaf </i>takes precedence over the Quran. I am simply proposing an inquiry into how objects help to construct the world in which we live. By “constructed” I mean make solid and durable. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tracing the associations between humans and other objects (and other non-human entities, Latour would add) that emerge thanks to the fact that the Quran is mediated not only through a sound but also via paper, ink, script, orthography, diacritics, and so on, allows me to see what builds the world without deciding ahead of time what kind of reality is actually being produced: political?, economic?, religious?, technological? or something else? This way I do not limit my inquiry in advance: I do not constrain myself to fields that are commonly associated with the study of religious texts and media. As a result, I extend my study to multiple technologies involved in disseminating the Quranic text, as mediating the Quran has as much to do with science as it does with theology. [This post explores specifically only one of the many human-nonhuman networks centered on the Qur’anic book that emerged during my research; a network that consists among others of practitioners, rules of the etiquette of handling the muṣḥaf, requirements of purity, and smart phones that happen to mediate the Qur’anic text in addition to other popular phone applications (apps).] </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>ENACTING THE QUR’AN</b> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A quick search online for the word “Quran” shows that in popular English, the Quran is often referred to as the Muslim “holy book.” Yet strictly speaking, and as we already know, it is not a book. Nor it is “holy” in the common understanding of this word. Neither the book nor the message are “holy” in the way the Bible is referred to in the Christian tradition. In the Arabic language, the word <i>muqaddas</i> and its derivatives do not index the Quran or its tangible body. Perhaps it is because <i>al-kitab al-muqaddas</i> -- the “holy book” -- is the phrase already reserved by the Arabic-speaking Christians to describe their own scripture, the Bible. My friends in Egypt never spoke of the Quran or muṣḥaf’s holiness but instead always emphasized the notion of “deference” <i>(iḥtiram)</i> which should be directed towards the book that carries the text of the Quran. The word <i>iḥtiram</i> etymologically comes from the root <i>ḥarima</i> “to be prohibited, to be forbidden, to exclude or withhold, which in some of its derivative verbal forms has the connotation of being set aside or inviolable. But, etymology should not be our guide in understanding the realities of the <i>muṣḥaf</i> and the Quran. Rather than tracking the word’s semantic field, I suggest we turn to the actual practices of <i>iḥtiram</i> performed by Quranic users, people who read and handle Quranic copies in the course of daily activities, and to think of them as meaning-making enactments [ix] of the Quran. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">What follows then is a description of instances in which the Quran is enacted through the daily routines of worship and piety known as the etiquette of the <i>muṣḥaf</i> or <i>adab al-muṣḥaf</i>. These practices, however, are inseparably entangled with technology. A book made of paper is not the same as the Quranic text on the screen of a phone. A text visible on the page does not necessarily appear in the same way as its digitized version under a plastic cover. When the medium of the message changes, the etiquette of the <i>muṣḥaf </i>changes as well, and practices of <i>iḥtiram</i> are redefined to accommodate this new and unprecedented materiality of the text. I will return to this issue in a moment but in order to grasp the precarious status of the switch to a new medium, I need to briefly describe the forms of rapport long established between the practitioners and their printed <i>maṣāḥif</i>. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">What practitioners know about <i>adab al-muṣḥaf</i> comes from lessons at the mosque, education at home, mass media, and self-study, and pertains to multiple situations in the course of daily activities. Over time, I trained myself to pay attention to the small gestures of deference that surrounded the <i>muṣḥaf </i>in private and public spaces. I learned to notice that a <i>muṣḥaf</i> was not left open turned upside down, was not covered with other books and objects, was not left on the floor or on a table with food. I watched these acts of deferment implemented daily through gestures of <i>iḥtiram</i>. I saw my friends and strangers uncover a <i>muṣḥaf</i>, pick it up, move it, put it away. I learned where and when it could be left undisturbed, at least as much as life in crowded and polluted spaces allowed. In interviews, I was given many examples of what not to do with the <i>muṣḥaf</i>: I was warned not to wet my finger with my saliva when turning the pages; not to read it in bed; not to sit, sleep, or lean upon a <i>muṣḥaf</i>; not to throw it; not to put anything between its pages except empty sheets of paper; and not to scribble notes on it. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sometimes ordinary acts of respect would take me by surprise or frustrate me. I remember my embarrassment when Rahab’s mother removed a pair of golden earrings I accidentally put on her <i>muṣḥaf</i>. I also remember working in a library in Cairo where an anonymous stranger would persistently remove a <i>muṣḥaf</i> from the lower shelf where its call number would require it to be to the top shelf, out of cataloging order. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Although the rules of <i>adab al-muṣḥaf</i> are quite clear and specific, even classical scholars recognized the difficulty of following the rules of purity in all circumstances and at all times. A well-known example cites the case of pupils in the Quranic schools who, if the rules were upheld, would have to perform ablutions after every urination or defecation, which would disrupt the class and take too much time away from instruction. Therefore different provisions and exceptions, such as holding or touching the book with other objects or between the outer parts of one’s palms, have been made to reconcile the rules of purity with the daily exigencies. These provisions and exceptions have become incorporated into daily routines, and are even more necessary as transmigratory life in Cairo makes following the rules more cumbersome: for instance, the long hours of commuting to work could be spent on reading the Quran but making the required <i>wudu’ </i>beforehand is not always possible. It is, therefore, left to the conscience of individual practitioners how to reconcile <i>adab al-muṣḥaf </i>with the contingencies of rapidly changing and accelerated lifestyles. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Human friendships also make relationships with some objects more complicated, forcing the practitioners to make uneasy choices about whether their allegiances lie with people or things. I know I was at times the cause of such dilemmas. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">When I traveled with Rahab to her family’s cabin on the shores of Marsa Matruh, I was not aware of the rules that guided the handling of a <i>muṣḥaf</i>. At the end of the day, I sat on a comfortable bed and stretched lazily, not being able to decide whether I was too tired to read anything. Out of the corner of my eye I saw a book on the bedside table and picked it up. It was a <i>muṣḥaf</i>. I flipped through the pages absentmindedly. Rahab walked into the room and saw the book in my hands. “Do you mind putting it away?” she said somewhat sheepishly, “you are...you know...your hands are not clean.” “I just washed them,” I said, not sure what she meant. “That’s not it.” She was clearly uneasy. “You are...you are not a Muslim so...you shouldn’t touch it.” Rahab did not want me to hold the <i>muṣḥaf</i>. But because we were good friends she could openly ask me to put it away, although it was not a comfortable request to make. In my interactions with other people, I occasionally saw a fleeting hesitation and an almost instinctive jerk of the hand in a protective gesture when I reached for a <i>muṣḥaf</i>. Once or twice it was silently removed from my hands with a quick but telling motion. But Rahab was one of few who candidly referred to my impurity. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">As a non-Muslim I was not in a state of <i>ṭahāra</i>, but neither was Rahab that evening in Marsa Matruh. At her request I put the <i>muṣḥaf </i>down. She immediately picked up two other books from the coffee table and using them as tongs carried the <i>muṣḥaf </i>out of the room. “I’m having my period,” she said in a matter-of-fact voice, responding to the surprised look I threw at her contraption. By not touching the Quranic text while menstruating, Rahab followed the rules of handling the <i>muṣḥaf </i>habituated by generations of Muslim women. Nonetheless, not all take for granted this particular bodily comportment with the book. The piety movement that is becoming more popular among Egyptian women has produced female practitioners who want to learn more about their religion. By rejecting modern and secular values promoted by the government, they turned to religion for empowerment. These women choose to fully embrace and to submit to Islamic principles that require diligence. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The reactions of my female friends and acquaintances to the issue of touching a <i>muṣḥaf</i> during menses illustrate modern shifts in the attitudes towards one’s own body. Some of the women, like Rahab, considered menstruation as a state of impurity and simply accepted the fact that in that state they could not read the Quran. Others were unsure about how to think of their own menstruating bodies, perceiving the prohibition not so much a matter of ritual uncleanliness but rather a tradition that should be upheld. These women often find creative ways around the rules that separated them from the actual text, such as listening to the recordings on their mobile phones or reading the Quran on a computer screen, that does not require touching the text. Some distinguished touching the text itself from touching the blank corners of a page. Still others, like Dalia, treated menstruation as a biological function that should not prohibit a pious person from cultivating a personal relationship with Allah, including holding the words of the message mediated in a tangible way by a <i>muṣḥaf</i>. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">It would be easy to dismiss these acts of deference towards the object as simply reflections of the extraordinary nature of the Quranic message. But I cannot overlook the material mediation of the <i>muṣḥaf </i>in the fabric of religious practice, affect, and knowledge. Attention to the corporeality of the book does not mean that the Islamic theological pronouncements that stand behind the rules of <i>adab al-muṣḥaf</i> assign priority to the object over the message. Yet the same pronouncements attest to the fact that it is very hard to demarcate a clear boundary between the immaterial, eternal words of Allah and their material mediators in the form of perishable ink, paint, and paper. On a practical level, disentangling the relation between the book and the message is only possible when the medium that carries the message is drastically changed. The introduction of digital technologies in the dissemination of the Quran provides us with an opportunity to ask: how does a change in medium circumscribe the message? How does one enact a “digital Quran”? </span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“Electronic Qurans” </span></span></span></b><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Digitization of the Quranic text is a relatively new phenomenon. In Egypt, only within the last decade have software and apps companies started offering electronic editions of the Quran in Arabic (English translations have been available since the mid-to late 1990s). It is the technology itself that for long happened to be the obstacle. In spite of growing interest in digitization of the Quranic text, boosted by the spread of new technologies and skills, rendering the Quran in a digital format presented numerous conundrums for programmers and religious authorities. Although practitioners with access to computers and other electronic devices saw benefits of using the digitized Quran, it was the programmers’ inability to properly reproduce the Quranic text in an electronic format that impaired its spread at the end of the twentieth and beginning of the twenty first century. The Quran was only available in a form of a digitized picture but it was not available as an independent, searchable text that might be practically used in study and learning in different computer applications. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The calligraphic styles used over the centuries for writing maṣāḥif and imitated through the lithographic and offset printing -- that facilitated continuation of many calligraphic traditions in mechanically reproduced texts of the Quran -- have produced their own regimes of authority and authentication that would be hard to recreate through a font style that did not participate in the tradition of Quranic calligraphy. It is particularly true when we consider how the introduction of typographic print in Egypt disrupted the semantic system of distinct calligraphic styles and their fields of signification by visually unifying texts belonging to different spheres of religious, political and economic practice. With the introduction of printing, a variety of calligraphic styles that communicated different contents of the text was replaced by one uniform printing font that lost its capacity to convey meaning through format. A Quranic typeface soon recreated its own distinctive visual format that in many ways was much more grounded in the pre-print scripts than in then-contemporary secular printing, full of innovative designs. </span></span></span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/suit/Figure3_sm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/suit/Figure3_sm.jpg" height="400" width="296" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 3: A page from a printed <i>muṣḥaf</i> with the typographic font imitating handwritten <i>maṣāḥif</i>. Photo by author.</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A Quranic typeface soon recreated its own distinctive visual format that in many ways was much more grounded in the pre-print scripts than in then-contemporary secular printing, full of innovative designs. When digitization entered the printing and dissemination markets in Egypt at the beginning of the nineties, it preserved the Quranic calligraphic tradition by reproducing handwritten copies or printed <i>masahif</i> as uneditable, undividable text blocks that could not be copied or searched. By that point in history adjustments in religious visual culture (prompted in particular by Quranic editions such as Mushaf Fu’ad and in general by the modern aesthetics of the secular texts) had changed the reading habits of Muslim practitioners. People desired to read the text of the Quran that was “legible” and print-like and they wanted it to be like other easily accessible and usable electronic texts. Therefore, the push to digitize the Quran in Egypt did not come from scholars at al-Azhar but through the initiatives of individual practitioners who were interested in both the correct spelling/diacritics and usability of the text. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The basis of the digital revolution, the Unicode system used worldwide for encoding texts in different writing systems is grounded in a typographic, Latin-script based tradition. A particular code is ascribed to a particular letter or sign in a sequential order. This system does not support the variant glyphs of primary graphemes with additional signs floating above or below the baseline, which is crucial for the Arabic script. The Quranic text written in such software was not only lacking many specifically Quranic signs. It was also easily distorted and altered because each letter was treated by the software as an individual sign, uncorrelated with the rest of the diacritics and letters around it.</span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/suit/Figure4_sm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/11/suit/Figure4_sm.jpg" height="28" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Figure 4: An example of Arabic print distorted and disconnected by incompatibility of Mac Office with the Arabic font. The letters are disconnected and the words are in an inverted order. Image by author.</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The letters are disconnected and the words are in an inverted order.
Technically, it was not difficult to copy and paste the Quranic text but the results were often disastrous. From this perspective, the ease of transferring text from one format to another, or from one electronic device to another was, ironically, one of the biggest predicaments of disseminating the digitized Quran. The challenge was to create a program in which the Quranic text would be stable enough, yet editable, not easily manipulated but transferable. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">An attempt to create a program that would allow searching, copying, and pasting the Quranic text without distortion of the position of the letters, or changing them into numeric signs and symbols, has been undertaken at the <a href="http://www.qurancomplex.org/" target="_blank">King Fahd Quran Complex</a>. Its team of engineers has recently released to the public domain a font application that is also compatible with Unicode. This application is available for free on the Complex’s website and has been developed specifically for the text of the Quran. Also, Thomas Milo and his company <a href="http://www.decotype.com/" target="_blank">DecoType</a> has been successful in developing new ways of encoding Arabic script strictly following the rules of Arabic calligraphy. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The transition from print to digital has offered new possibilities for transmission of the Quranic text and has produced alternative philosophies of interaction between script and its digital medium. It has also engendered a critical change in the ways practitioners perceive Quranic text as an integral part of the <i>muṣḥaf</i>. The “electronic Quran” is not a book in the ordinary sense of this word at all. It is a text mediated by the screen of a computer, an electronic device, or a mobile phone, where it shares memory space with other texts and images. An electronic device can hardly be called a <i>muṣḥaf</i>.
For that reason, opinions regarding how to act towards an electronic copy of the text are considerably at odds among the practitioners and scholars alike. Some insist that the rules of <i>adab</i> apply in the same way to both objects, while others follow the argumentation summarized by a well know anecdotic <i>fatwa</i>: </span></span></span><br />
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A man asked a sheikh whether it was permitted to bring a mobile phone with the Quranic verses to the bathroom. </span></span></span></i><br />
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The sheikh answered, “It is permissible because the verses are in the memory of the phone.” </span></span></span></i><br />
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The man asked again, “But sheikh, we are talking about the Quranic verses and the most beautiful names of Allah, and you are saying that it is permitted to take them to the bathroom?” </span></span></span></i><br />
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The sheikh replied, “Have you memorized any verses from the Quran?” </span></span></span></i><br />
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“Yes,” said the man. </span></span></span></i><br />
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<i><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“Well then,” retorted the sheikh, “when you go to the bathroom, leave your head by the door and then step in. </span></span></span></i><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The doctrinal confusion created by the use of new technology has been successfully deployed by menstruating women to read the Qur’anic text in spite of having period. For that reason, it is not uncommon among the Egyptian women to read the Quranic text from a mobile phone during that time, following the opinion that an electronic device constitutes a carrier and a barrier of the text at the same time. It is a safe barrier as it cannot be crossed -- one cannot directly touch the digital letters. In this case menstruation has no effect on the practical use of the Quranic text. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">I think it is important, then, to ask what happens to the Quran when its enactments start quite suddenly differing from the ones carried out by the previous generations of practitioners? Annemarie Mol suggests that when we foreground the practices surrounding things we are able to track how those things come into being. If the practices differ, new things appear and the realities are multiplied. Instead of a passive thing in the middle seen from multiple perspectives we are faced with new things constantly coming into being. Yet the multiple objects do not fall apart, but as she puts it, they “tend to hang together somehow.” [x] For Muslim practitioners the Quran in a phone that can be touched without ablutions is not suddenly different from the Quran in a <i>muṣḥaf</i> that cannot. This happens because practices that have ability to create new realities are always entangled with practices that stabilize things, give them a kind of inertia, and make them “hang together.” However, the accelerating use of technology in accessing the Qur’anic message begs a question: how much longer will the <i>adab al-muṣḥaf</i> be relevant to the Qur’an and when/if it ceases to be germane to the Muslim practice, what will this change do to the way the Qur’an itself is understood and interpreted? </span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Endnotes </span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[i] Ibn Kathir, <i>Tafsir al-Qur'an al'Azim</i>, vol. 7, Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1966, p. 481. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[ii] Walter Benjamin, “Unpacking My Library,” in <i>Illuminations</i> (New York: Schocken Books, 1969, [1931]): 59-67. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[iii] Roger Chartier, <i>The Order of Books: Readers, Authors, and Libraries in Europe between the Fourteenth and Eighteenth Centuries</i> (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1994). Patrick Hanan, Judith T. Zeitlin, and Lydia He Liu, <i>Writing and Materiality in China: Essays in Honor of Patrick Hanan</i> (Cambridge, Mass.: Asia Center for the Harvard-Yenching Institute, 2003). Donald F. McKenzie, <i>Making Meaning: "Printers of the Mind" and Other Essays </i>(Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002). </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[iv] Karl Marx, <i>Capital </i>(Provo, UT: Regal Publications, 1993 [1867]). </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[v] Sigmund Freud, <i>Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement Between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics </i>(New York: W.W. Norton & Co.,1950 [1913]). </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[vi] Emile Durkheim, <i>The Elementary Forms of Religious Life</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001 [1912]). </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[vii] Marcel Mauss, <i>The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies </i>(New York: W.W. Norton, 1990 [1923]). </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[viii] Bruno Latour, <i>Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory </i>(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005): 72. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[ix] Annemarie Mol, <i>The Body Multiple: Ontology in Medical Practice</i> (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002): 31-33. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[x] Ibid.
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-49594593094256288322015-10-29T11:31:00.000-07:002015-10-30T18:17:51.141-07:00On the Agency of Religious Objects: A Conversation <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Morgan, David, Brent S. Plate, Jeremy Stolow and Amy Whitehead<i> </i></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"On the Agency of Religious Objects: A Conversation"</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions</i>. 29 October 2015. [date of access]</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">On the heels of the conference, "Material Religion: Embodiment, Materiality, Technology," held at Duke University, September 10-12, 2015, and looking forward to the launch of the new book series, "Bloomsbury Studies in Material Religion," a few of us involved had the following exchange on the topic of agency in the study of religious material culture. One way of thinking about things—images, objects, clothing, food, spaces, and our bodies—is to regard them as mediating several agents and becoming in the process agents themselves. A thing offers particular affordances, accommodating some uses and not others. It changes the user's relationship to other agents, to the task at hand, and to the thing itself, which mediates these relations. This urges us to think about things as different kinds of technologies. The exchange got underway when David Morgan suggested that we might regard sacred things as tools with handles for both the human user and a non-human one. It is the simplest version of a network: three agents engaged in a dynamic set of relations that redefine the scope of each. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b>Brent Plate:</b> When it comes to interest in "material religion," the central question that I keep getting asked is: Do the objects have power/agency of their own? The answer is yes, but one has to get away from the hold of anthropocentrism to understand how. I think this is what Bruno Latour is after with <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/reassembling-the-social-9780199256051?cc=es&lang=en&" target="_blank">ANT (Actor-Network Theory)</a>, and philosophers like Graham Harman are doing with <a href="http://www.thedewlab.com/blog/2012/07/12/introduction-to-object-oriented-ontology/" target="_blank">object oriented ontology</a> (though too philosophically for my taste). There is an ontology to the object, it has agent status, but that doesn't mean it behaves just like an animal. The objects extend human agency, but humans also extend the agency of the object, and the objects have some agency with or without humans. And then I wonder if "agency" is really what matters. <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/03/130302-dog-domestic-evolution-science-wolf-wolves-human/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/03/130302-dog-domestic-evolution-science-wolf-wolves-human/" target="_blank">Dogs</a> and <a href="http://www.economist.com/node/5323362" target="_blank">wheat</a> evolved alongside humans, not just bending phylogenetically to the human will, but humans were changed by the evolving species as well. (I know I'm adding a diachronous element here, and so "object," which we usually try to pin down in synchronic dimensions, doesn't fit so neatly…) We are who we are because of the objects that engage us and evolve with us. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I'm not sure I have an interest in doing so, as I hung up my philosophy hat years ago, but I wonder about some theorized ontology and taxonomy of religious objects. As we all like to say, the material medium matters. And so different media, different tools, make a difference. I like David's idea of religious objects as a two-handled tool, that the devotee grasps on one end and "spiritual reality" the other end. This gets me immediately wondering about the specifics of tool use, and how much improvisation can occur and when there might be 3 handles, or none at all, like a ball. It keeps bringing me back to the sensorium as an overarching field from which to estimate the differences in objects and object use within groups of people. There are other ways to chart the differences, but the sensorium seems the most gripping to me. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Nonetheless, within the academy, and especially within religious studies, there is still an ongoing fear of anything that smacks of "magic," so vast swaths of academics refuse to allow any status for an object. They think any power/agency is only what the social-ordering human puts on it. It's all so wonderfully 20th century. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b>David Morgan:</b> Giving objects wholehearted agency is, in my view, as much as a mistake as making them nothing but passive, inanimate matter. The truth is in-between. It reminds me of the art-and-religion crowd back in the 1980s: they reviled text and lauded image. But at the end of the day, how can we sever them from one another? Our brains mix both together, along with a plumber's tool kit of other things. The quest for purity is a curiously modern obsession that fails to match the complexity of the human mind and the world around us. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A hammer transforms my hand into something else. But it takes both the hammer and my hand (and my brain and everything in-between) to get the job done. So I am not interested in purging the human presence out of the world humans participate in. To be sure, there are worlds here and far away that register hardly any or no human presence. They are non-human worlds defined in different terms than by feelings, thought, will, emotion, intuition, social organization, and so on. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I like the way Latour describes networks. He does not hesitate to factor humans into the assemblages and to show how deeply interactive people are with things. We delegate all manner of moral, functional, and ideological responsibilities to things--from seat belts to door stops, as he famously described in one essay. We make things that make us. That phrase, simply put, is what I take to be his major point. We distribute our being among non-human things, which are not simply colonized by us (in the sense of anthropomorphism), but shape our behavior, tell us what to do, scold us when we don't, stop us from doing otherwise, and plague us with unintended consequences.
I also admire the way Alfred Gell describes primary and secondary agents. His version of secondary agents certainly works best, or perhaps only, in a world where humans exist. But that seems quite fine to me since that is the world that we need to care about and which commands our intrinsic interest. Not that we want to lose touch with the limits of our being and the brutal way anthropocentrism can act. And a so-called flat ontology approach does its best when it makes things and connections visible that anthropocentrism easily occludes. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b>Amy Whitehead:</b> I think re-defining "technology" to include the mechanisms of religious performance aspect is superb. Performance as technology. Great. From this I am inspired to understand the body as a fetish, embodying/being power through gestures and signs... I do have some comments which are to add to the general discussion, and to raise some issues with agency and ANT. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The "in-between" place that David suggests is what I like to call the relational zone; and in the relational zone, anything is possible. Objects can be "persons" (to use the new animism vernacular) depending on how they are related to. This means that agency (for want of a better word) or the "liveliness" of objects is co-inspired, co-created, and co-relational. Devotees and objects bring each other into unique forms of ontological being. This doesn't mean that things are not persons when we're not around, too - but playing Smart's methodological atheism, or even agnosticism, card allows us ethnographic flexibility when we approach religious objects so that we are not automatically inclined to assume anthropocentric attitudes. We cannot know what happens in the "worlds" of objects, especially religious ones because of their borderland orientations, when we're not around (if a tree falls in the forest and no human is around to hear it - does it make a sound? Maybe not in the human world, but there will certainly be a cacophony of beings out there who did hear it!). </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In ANT, actors are to speak nodes in networks, and there are no actors in/of themselves. This means that agency can be present anywhere in any network, and at any time, regardless of whether or not that agency involves, inhabits, engages, or prompts so called "inanimate" objects. From this view, networks are continually in states of becoming. In any case the concept of agency (if we take the classic material culture definition) can arguably be mistaken as it lends itself to ideas of representation (according to James Leach with regard to Gell's "Art and Agency"), and this detracts from the fair and distributed importance that the roles of objects should be receiving if we are to challenge the old dichotomies (Ingold likens agency to the sprinkling of fairy dust on objects because as moderns we don't know how else to deal with them, and this is another form of, yet again, Tylor's spirit/matter form of animism - so no real advance can be made). So perhaps neither agency, nor ANT, are capable of accounting for the complexities involved in the lived realities of both religion and "everyday life" (if I dare make that distinction) - but ANT is a damn good map that we can all use to build on. I know Ingold's "meshwork" can also be problematic, but for me it tends to be paint a more organic picture in how things/humans/artefacts/nature move, enmesh, flow, stop, entangle, blend, fuse, move apart again, and take various directions. Meshwork is more volatile than network - I think - but this could be splitting hairs over a metaphor. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b>Jeremy Stolow: </b> When it comes to studying religion, we are faced with a fundamental, and arguably a unique, challenge to the interpretive categories we rely upon to conduct our work. We are required to consider the role human actors (who can be classified as adherents of one or another religious formation, as members of discrete social classes, and possessing different sensorial tuned, gendered and racialized bodies, and so on) alongside other nonhuman agents that seem to occupy the religious field – animals, ritual objects, architecture, clothing, media technologies, and other elements of material culture. But beyond this, we must also find a way to take into account yet another class of actors whose ontological status remains controversial from the viewpoint of the humanities and social sciences: deities, angels, spirits, demons, magical spells, astral bodies, and so on. Do those latter sorts of nonhuman entities fall inside or outside the scope of inquiry? To whom does a religious actor pray? From whom does a supplicant receive grace, miraculous healing, or some other spiritual benefit? What are the supernatural forces with whom human actors traffic? Where do they reside, how can they be perceived, and what legitimates any claims made on their behalf? Answers to such questions are far from straightforward. Of course, there are longstanding traditions in the social sciences and humanities that give credence to religious entities only as elements within a given system of belief, as functionalist symbols sustaining social order, as opiates of the people, and so on. But one makes such ascriptions only by first assuming the non-reality of gods, spirits, demons, and magical forces: stripping them of all external existence and relocating them in the twists and turns of the collective self, the unconscious, or the neural network of human brains. What would an alternative approach look like? If, for instance, we take seriously, as many religious actors seem to do, the existence of spirits, souls, demons, and gods, would that preclude the possibility of critical distance? </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">For some time now, and with gathering speed over the past twenty years, scholars have taken issue with many of the key assumptions about 'the human subject' as a privileged site of analysis, especially with regard to studies that take human agency to be a unified, coherent, and intentional source of action and meaning-making. In the 1960s and 1970s, assumptions about human subjectivity were under attack by structuralist linguistics, deconstruction, and Foucaultian genealogy; in more recent years, other challengers have emerged, including actor-network-theory, media archaeology, cognitive science, and so-called 'new materialist' philosophy. Despite their many points of tension, these theoretical frameworks share a common desire to extend the notions of action and actor beyond that of 'the human', by pushing onto the agenda important questions about the role of everything from language games to scientific instruments to animals to media technologies to built and natural environments, and in so doing arguing that the very terms agency and action ought to refer to a broad range of transformative relationships and events, many if not most of which are not rooted in the notion of an intending (human) subject. But it seems to me that most of those research programs do not sit very comfortably with the study of the sort of immaterial nonhuman actors abounding in the religious field, since most scholars have yet to deal with the specification of objects and actors that cannot be accounted for within established natural-scientific paradigms, or whose historicity is not so readily contained in narratives of advancing prerogatives of the modern state, industrial capitalism, centers of calculation, and other frameworks of social and cultural modernization. The study of material religion has served as a powerful vehicle for exploring a range of ways that 'religion' extends beyond the seemingly abstract world of symbols and propositional claims about knowledge and belief. The challenge facing us today is to make sound decisions about where such investigations can and should take us next: whether we will remain tied to the assumption that 'secular sciences' such as physics, biology, or statistics have already adjudicated the reality of the cosmos, or whether there is room for consideration of another stratum of actors and action whose very postulation is hostile to modern scientific structures of authority. What really are we afraid of? What do we believe we will gain or lose, as scholars and as citizens, if we give credence to the kinds of nonhuman actors that religious agents have long accepted at face value? Must we believe in order to study? Does that very question present us with a false dilemma? </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b>David Morgan:</b> I don’t think belief is a prerequisite for studying religion. I don’t have to believe that gods exist to understand what they mean to someone who describes to me how they keep his world together in daily interventions and favors. It does not seem a problem to me to take "supernatural" beings seriously in the study of religion, that is, as actors or agents in someone’s religious world. I have to say "someone’s religious world" because it is not my world. In studying that world, I can describe it the way my informants accounts for it, I can watch what they do, study the objects they craft, exchange, display, venerate, and destroy. I can even participate in their world, but likely only as a visitor, a temporary guest. Perhaps I might join them, but it’s quite probably I won’t. I have my own world and I like it. So what we are doing as religion scholars is studying worlds—what makes them up, how people and things and gods and spirits behave within them, what matters to each of these agents and what does not matter, how that world is organized, how it deals with change and chaos, and how it interacts with other worlds. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span abp="1049"><span abp="1050" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><b>Amy Whitehead:</b> In addition to these provocative thoughts, I would like to add another, more anecdotal thought, based on the idea that in certain cases religious objects specifically (isolating the material dimension of religion) have the power not only to assist in the "ordering of chaos," but to <i>bridge </i>the different worlds of others. For example, a current research interest of mine is based on two small, wooden statue forms of the "same" Virgin, one in Havana, Cuba, and the other in Chipiona, in Andalusia, Spain. The Cuban Virgen de la Regla is an exact replica of the Spanish one, and in both contexts the Virgin Mary plays central social, political, and religious roles to community/village life. "She" is also cared for by groups of women called <i>camaristas</i> ("chamber maids") who play significant roles in their communities. <i>Camaristas</i> are responsible for ritually bathing and dressing the statues, maintaining cultural traditions/identities and preserving taboos surrounding the Virgin’s female corporeal form. In Cuba, however, where Catholicism and the Afro-Cuban religion Santeria co-exist, the Virgin has two religious identities – statues of the Virgin Mary are both Catholic Virgin(s) and African goddesses. Resulting from Spanish colonialism and African diasporas, these dual identities not only create tensions within Cuban vernacular Catholicism and Santeria, but they bridge them as well. <i>La Virgen de la Regla</i> (Havana) for example, is both Yemeya and Virgin, and the two identities share not only a shrine, but a corporeal wooden form. They are approached, venerated and given gifts in different yet similar ways – yet this aside, both are referred to as being inherently powerful. Concepts of representation are, in both of these cases, marginalised. These complex local and universal worlds of conflicting ontologies where spirits, gods, intercessors and saints reside in the same places, offering, perhaps, ways in which to re-think the roles of women, (Spanish) vernacular religions, the impact of colonialism, Afro-Caribbean diasporas, and the significance of religious materiality. Further, highlighting the powerful roles of female stewards has the potential to re-define the roles of women more generally in vernacular Catholicism(s). Oppression and violent pasts are pacified in the presences of these statues and in their shrines. So all of these "actors" – the <i>camaristas</i>, the statues, regular devotees, gifts given, and, of course, the statues of Mary/<i>Yemeya</i> come together to relationally "act out," fuel, motivate and forge senses of community, nationalism, and connections to old and new worlds, and this provides further insight into the social and other types of cohesion that religious materiality can provide. , </span></span></span><br />
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-43121293886580434582015-10-13T22:28:00.000-07:002015-10-13T22:50:19.561-07:00Exploring Aniconism: IAHR 2015 Panel Review<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></span></span></div>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/mikael-aktor.html" target="_blank">Mikael Aktor</a> reviews the panel he co-organised on Aniconism at the 2015 IAHR World Conference in Erfurt, Germany.</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Anicionic objects
from different religious traditions together form a broad category of religious
material sources. In fact, it seems both too broad and incoherent. It includes
clearly recognizable depictions of wheels, fish, phalli, unmanufactured objects
and elements in the natural environment such as unwrought stones, trees, rivers
and mountains, fashioned objects, such as stelai and logs, as well as empty
spaces, such as vacant seats, and empty rooms. While all of these objects are
described as ‘aniconic’ at least in some religious traditions, they differ
dramatically in their religious agency and manner of mediating divine presence.
A South Asian river can be a Hindu goddess, while it is hardly an image of her.
Similarly, a black meteorite could be described as Cybele the mother goddess, yet
it does not seem to articulate a vision of the divinity’s imagined appearance. At the
same time, a river and a stone have markedly different physical and visual relations
to their viewers and worshippers as well as the deities to which they are
linked. In order to explore
the range of aniconism, Mikael Aktor and Milette Gaifman organised a panel at
the <a href="http://www.iahr2015.org/iahr/index.html" target="_blank">21<sup>st</sup> World Congress </a>of the </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://www.iahr.dk/" target="_blank">International Association for the History of Religions (IAHR)</a> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">to discuss these questions. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In particular panelists were invited to
address three themes: How to build up a
more precise terminology? There is much confusion as to the meaning of several
central words such as ‘representation’, ‘symbol’, ‘icon’, ‘iconicity’, ‘aniconic’
and subcategories of the aniconic such as ‘physiomorphic’, ‘petromorphic’ and
more. It is also open to debate as to how many and what categories must or can be
included in the aniconic.
Is a body relic an aniconic representation of a
sacred being? Is fire? It is also common that a god or goddess appears in both
anthropomorphic and physiomorphic forms. The river Narmada in Madhya Pradesh,
India, is worshipped as a goddess and so is her anthropomorphic image in front
of which we find the aniconic <i>banalinga, </i>the direct manifestation of Shiva. What kinds of mediation are going on here? Is the river an ‘aniconic representation
of Mother Narmada’ or simply her true form? </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/aktor/Fig1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/aktor/Fig1.jpg" height="290" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Figure 1: Narmada Temple at the Western point
of Mandhata Island in the middle of Narmada River at Omkareshwar, Madhya
Pradesh, India. </span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Photo by Mikael Aktor.</span></span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Another theme is
about historiography. Scholars working in different religious traditions, for
instance Greek, Hindu and Buddhist, have often assumed that aniconic symbols
predate later pictorial, typically anthropomorphic modes of expression. Recent
scholarship has revealed that such periodizations sometimes go together with
the hypothesis that early aniconic symbolism was the expression of an original
unwillingness to imagine divine beings in iconic forms, an unwillingness that
only gradually gave way to iconicity and an anthropomorphic visual imagery. But
do such hypotheses stand for a fresh historical scrutiny within single
traditions, and if they do, can such developments be explained within general
macro-historical frameworks? Lastly, it is interesting to ask questions about how aniconic objects embody and mediate their prototypes. Even if aniconic modes of expression predate iconic imagery, aniconism was never lost. Rather aniconic forms continued to exist as a deliberate choice side by side with anthropomorphic or other iconic representations. What, then, do aniconic forms accomplish in terms of mediating the divine prototypes to which they are related? Also the lack of direct visual links between aniconic objects and the holy or ritually potent presences they mediate raises questions as to how the sensory properties of such objects generate notions of ritual agency and trigger religious thought and practice. Is the missing visual link a way of expressing a more esoteric understanding of the prototype? </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Nine papers were presented at the panel. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Milette Gaifman critically addressed the genealogy of the notion of ‘aniconism’ from its birth into archeological scholarship in the middle of the 19th century. The word was coined by the German archaeologist Johannes Adolph Overbeck, in the context of an account of the development of ancient Greek art. But it was overlaid with a Protestant ideological bias in favor of transcendence that is inadequate today. The paper also stressed the idea of aniconism as a deliberate choice and showed how Greek gods were given both anthropomorphic and aniconic forms. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/aktor/Fig2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/aktor/Fig2.jpg" height="400" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Figure 2: </span><span style="font-family: Arial;">
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</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Seat of Zeus and Hekate. Halki
Island, Greece. Photo by Milette Gaifman</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">.</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span></div>
</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Robert G. Bednarik argued that contrary to the widely held belief that iconic palaeoart preceded the aniconic during the early history of humans, palaeoart commenced as non-iconic forms, and in most parts of the world then settled by hominins continued as such during the Pleistocene era. He paid attention to the question of the continuation of aniconism after the introduction of iconicity and the apparent connection between the former and adult initiated groups. He pointed out that the neuroscientific explanation of aniconism shows that it is cognitively more complex than iconic depiction. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/aktor/Fig3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/aktor/Fig3.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 115%;">Figure 3: P</span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 115%;">etroglyph</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 115%;"> in </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 115%;">Kienbachklamm, Austria.</span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 115%;">Photo by Szojak via <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Felsbildstation_Kienbachklamm,Wolfgangthal.JPG" target="_blank">Wikimedia Commons</a>, </span></span><span lang="DA" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DA; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: 宋体; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><span style="font-size: small;">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Jay Johnston considered the materiality and mediality of sacred and ‘magical’ stones in Northern European vernacular belief practices (especially Gaelic traditions). Her paper focused on the materiality and ontology of the objects, their associated visions and the relations such stones are understood to have produced. As sites of divine agency and efficacy the stones were imbued not only with spiritual agency, but also placed within an invisible network of relations that linked individuals, non-human animals, the landscape and the metaphysical realms. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Jørgen Podemann Sørensen presented material from ancient Egyptian religion, where images of the gods served to secure their presence in the world. Statues used in ritual were the vital presence of the god, and when kings were called ‘the living image’ (as in the name Tutankhamun) of a god, this was really based on the role of statues in ritual. At the same time there was an idea that gods had a ‘true form’, independent of all kinds of iconic or aniconic representation. This was demonstrated by the many iconic and aniconic representations of Osiris. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Hans Jørgen Lundager Jensen discussed the promotion of aniconism as a general rule for the Yahweh-religion: Images of the god Yahweh were strictly prohibited. The reason for the prohibition was not Yahweh’s inherent indescribability but can be understood in the broader context of the religious revolutions (the so-called ‘axial age‘) in the middle of 1. Mill. BCE. As such it can be regarded as an element in a general transformation from a ‘pre-axial’ type of religion, based on cult, ritual and material culture, to an ascetic, and cognitively sophisticated, form of religion. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Mikael Aktor presented his field work in Nepal and India on the Hindu <i>pancayatanapuja</i>, a ritual where five deities, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Ganesha and Devi, are worshipped in the form of five stones from different locations of South Asia. In particular, he examined the anthropomorphization that seems to take place when aniconic objects are appropriated in devotional rituals of worship. Inspired by Milette Gaifman’s idea of seeing aniconism not as an absolute mode of representation but as part of a spectrum he presented a chart showing the continuity between various aniconic forms. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="DA" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 115%;">Figure 4: </span><i><span lang="DA" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 115%;">Shalagramas</span></i><span lang="DA" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 115%;"> (Ammonite fossils), the manifestations of Vishnu,
with <i>tilaka</i> marks and facial characteristics. Muktinath, Nepal. Photo by Mikael Aktor.</span></span>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">David L. Haberman presented his research on the worship of landscape elements in Hinduism. He focused on the worshipful interaction with three such natural phenomena: the Yamuna River, sacred trees of Varanasi, and Mount Govardhan. He stressed that although all three would be considered aniconic religious objects, they all have iconic forms as well, typically personified as various gods or goddesses. Like the previous paper, a major aim of the presentation was to examine the devotional tendency to anthropomorphize aniconic objects as a way of manifesting their full being and bringing out their personality—in other words, to draw the iconic out of the aniconic. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Richard H. Davis discussed the many manifestations of Shiva that we see in South Indian temples as understood from the perspective of Shaivasiddhanta theology. A Shiva temple contains both iconic and aniconic forms, for Shiva to inhabit and for human devotees to worship. Davis presented the varied forms that are transformed ritually into manifestations of Shiva during a Shaiva temple festival, as spelled out in medieval priestly guidebooks. Apart from the aniconic Shivalinga and the anthropomorphic processional icons, these also include a flagpole, a sacrificial fire, a trident, a pot of water, a drum, and a temporary linga made of rice and yogurt. The festival provides a demonstration of Shiva’s divine ubiquity. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Klemens Karlsson stressed that meanings attributed to objects are not inherent to the objects themselves. Instead, meanings are the result of cultural and historical processes and are constantly changing. The same applies to ‘aniconic’ objects. Early Buddhist cultic sites in South Asia were covered with signs that have been interpreted as ‘aniconic’ representations of the Buddha. This paper focused on the shifting meanings of these signs from the early ‘aniconic’ phase to the time when these signs exist side by side with anthropomorphic presentations of the Buddha and became symbolic signs that serves as vehicles for Buddhist doctrines. </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The panel was convened by Mikael Aktor, co-editor of <a href="https://www.routledge.com/products/9781138778894" target="_blank">Objects of Worship in South Asian Religions</a> (Routledge 2015) and Milette Gaifman, author of <a href="http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199645787.do" target="_blank">Aniconism in Greek Antiquity</a> (Oxford University Press 2012). </span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">MLA citation format: Aktor, Mikael "Exploring Aniconism: IAHR 2015 Panel Review" Web blog post. <i>Material Religions.</i> 14 October 2015. [date of access] </span></span></span></div>
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-49497169964189171402015-10-06T20:38:00.000-07:002015-10-11T22:31:22.630-07:00The Extraordinary in the Ordinary: Miracle-working Images in Italy<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/jane-garnett.html" target="_blank">Jane Garnett</a> considers objects of domestic devotion from Italy that frame personal engagement in cults of miraculous images. Their presence within a complex network is powerful in connecting the everyday with the transcendental, the individual with the community.</span></span></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> <o:PixelsPerInch>72</o:PixelsPerInch> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></span> <span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">MLA citation format:</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Garnett, Jane<i>. </i></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"The Extraordinary in the Ordinary: </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Miracle-working Images in Italy."</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions</i>. 7 October 2015. [date of access]</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A commemorative engraving of a painting of the Virgin and Child is lovingly laid on a stretched cloth, embroidered with roses. The elaborate gold frame of the reproduced image is itself doubly framed by the exquisitely-worked flowers and the polished wood oval containing the whole. This was a wedding present in the early 1920s for the grandmother of the present owner, who keeps it in a place of honour in her home in the little Ligurian town of Sori on the north-west coast of Italy. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/garnett/Image1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/garnett/Image1.jpg" height="400" width="287" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 1: Framed engraving of the Madonna of the Graces, Sori, Italy. Photo by author.
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A similarly cheap and tiny print of the Virgin and Child from Livorno, just down the coast into Tuscany, is given an elaborate frame which, with simple materials, evokes the rich adornments of a shrine in a church. Cut-out pieces of coloured cardboard simulate a curtain, gold columns and marbled supports. The deep blue background – as intense as lapis lazuli - is encrusted with sea-shells, and two little angels, possibly taken from decorations for a Christmas crib, float in homage either side of the image. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/garnett/Image2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/garnett/Image2.jpg" height="400" width="308" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 2: Framed immaginetta of the Madonna of the Black Mountain, Livorno, Italy. Photo by author.</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Both these objects form part of a complex Catholic world in which the miraculous is animated within and animates the everyday. The cult images to which they relate are believed to be supernatural, and their shrines are the focus of devotional attention, through services, visits for private prayer, offerings – of candles, jewels, coloured ribbons, or money. Yet the image is never contained within a church. Indeed its potency there is reciprocally reinforced by its vitality outside – in the immediate neighbourhood, in the wider community, in people’s homes - and in the imagination of individuals. Ever-present - on street corners, in bars, on the façade of an apartment block, on the mantelpiece or above the bed, in people’s wallets – in the past on the prows of ships, still on gateways and overlooking harbours – the image gives life to memory and evokes the invisible. Each iteration of the image has the same potential for animating the supernatural. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Historically, the ex voto gifts presented in gratitude for graces granted in response to prayer have often taken the form of pictures which vividly depict the miracle – recovery from illness, survival of a workplace or road accident, rescue from a storm at sea. In such pictures the Virgin - the supernatural agent - characteristically appears in a corner, on a cloud or in a burst of light, as referent both to the particular cult image which is the object of devotion, and to her constant presence in the minds of those members of her community going about their daily business. In some, a reproduction of the image – on the wall of a sickroom or held up in the eye of the storm – makes a direct visual connection between the devotional focus of the devotee and the intercessory intervention of the Madonna. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/garnett/Image3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/10/garnett/Image3.jpg" height="288" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 3: Ex voto, Shrine of the Madonna of the Black Mountain, Livorno, Italy. Photo by author.</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Such devotional cultures present delicate challenges for both the historian of religion and the art historian. The very language that we habitually use of images – of figuration, representation, expression – threatens to be reductive in this context. The language of the ‘visual’ is inadequate to capture the multivalent ways in which the image is experienced. Sounds, smells, music, atmosphere, movement, reflections of candlelight in a puddle beneath a street shrine, the sun glinting on the gold decorations of a processional float – all can trigger connections, stimulate memory and mark out the zones within which the miraculous can be felt. Context, therefore, is vital, yet context does not suffice to explain the experience of the supernatural. The belief in the miraculous powers of an image and the behaviour that results from such belief throw into heightened relief the usual difficulties of historical interpretation. One of the principal challenges is that of grasping a concept of the mysterious that for believers readily coexists with the familiar and the everyday: that which resists explanation sits alongside, and within, that which demands no explanation. Miraculous images – vernacular and endlessly reproduced, whilst relating magically to a transcendent presence – move in and out of historical time, always evoking something beyond themselves, acquiring a particular focus at moments of devotional intensity, at others constituting an element of the more transitory movement of everyday life. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The two domestic images speak to the active animating role of the individual who forms part of a historically-embedded devotional community. For centuries, members of Catholic communities throughout north-west Italy, as in wider Catholic culture, have grown up with stories and experiences of miraculous interventions. The calendar has been marked out by ritual moments which re-enact, re-purpose and re-invent traditions. The week running up to the feast day of the particular Madonna is the culmination of a year of preparation - the dramatisation of a year-round devotional culture – often celebrated by spectacular displays of fireworks and processions to which all contribute. Such cults are social. But they are no less social for being intensely personal. The relationship between the individual and the particular Virgin of a particular place is intimate and intently practised. The act of customising cheap mass-produced reproductions – whether as a gift at a significant moment in someone’s life, or to create a private devotional object – is both a form of meditation and an expression of honour. The decorations give texture and status to something which is intrinsically deeply significant whilst being at the same time flimsy and ephemeral. The process embodies the paradox which lies at the heart of image cults, and which has always rendered them unstable and hence challenging to religious authorities. The material, however fragile, is freighted with transcendent power, and there are an infinite number of distinctive ways in which that power can be felt and understood through the interactive agency of the devotee and the Madonna. The ordinary and the extraordinary become one. </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jane Garnett and her co-author, Gervase Rosser, were joint winners of the 2014 ACE/Mercers' Book Award, a biennial prize awarded to a book which 'makes an outstanding contribution to the dialogue between religious faith and the visual arts', for their book <a href="http://www.reaktionbooks.co.uk/display.asp?ISB=9781780231051" target="_blank">Spectacular Miracles: Transforming Images in Italy from the Renaissance to the Present </a>(London: Reaktion Books, 2013).
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-22893590833504858462015-09-22T22:36:00.000-07:002015-09-27T17:59:36.344-07:00In Search of Gods: A Short Walk in Nowa Huta<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/christopher-pinney.html" target="_blank">Chris Pinney</a> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">describes his recent visit to the town of Nowa Huta, Krakow, Poland. Through photos of the landscape and architecture he traces the tumultuous history of this formerly Social Realist town that has been the site of Stalinism, the Polish Solidarity Movement and now the regeneration of Catholicism through new churches. This painful history seems embodied in the image of Our Lady of Czestochowa, whose scars elongate with the suffering of her nation.</span></span></span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial;"></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></span> <span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">MLA citation format:</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Pinney, Christopher<i>. </i></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"In Search of Gods: A Short Walk in Nowa Huta"</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions</i>. 23 September 2015. [date of access]</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">I returned for holiday purposes, in August 2015, to the Socialist
Realist township of Nowa Huta (literally the New Steel Mill). My visit was brief, but it reawakened the memory
I have from May last year of a wonderful tour under the tutelage of Monika
Golonka-Czajkowska of Jagiellonian University and author of the recently
published <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="http://www.wuj.pl/page,produkt,prodid,2107,strona,Nowe_miasto_nowych_ludzi,katid,26.html" target="_blank">Nowe Miasto, Nowych Ludzi: Mitologie Nowohuckie</a> </i>(Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego, 2013). </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Nowa Huta was the Communist regime’s response to Krakow’s defiant
anti-communist vote in 1946. The regime decided that this medieval city with
its vibrant intellectual and aesthetic presence throughout the 19<sup>th</sup>
and 20<sup>th</sup> century required “proletarianizing” through the creation of
a nearby steel works (Huta Lenin) and associated township. It was believed that
this “city without god” would act as a counterweight to Krakow’s intransigence.
Work started in 1949 and was largely complete by the mid-1950s. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 1: Plac Centraly im Ronaldo Reagana. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The central square, our point of arrival, has been renamed Plac Centraly
im Ronalda Reagana [Figure 1] after the figure who for many Poles remains the hero
of their most recent liberation. In Ronald Reagan Square there is a striking
monument to Solidarity, the movement led by Lech Walesa in the Gdansk shipyards
which stakes a claim to what Golonka-Czajkowska sees as a central local
historical identity, namely that Nowa Huta workers were pioneers in the
movement to free it of Soviet domination. A striking V-shaped white stone monument
with steel plaques traces a historical trajectory from left to right. First we
see riot police gathered under a large cross [Figure 2], then an image of Pope
John-Paul II, then a plaque commemorating the Gdansk struggles of 1970-80, and
finally the insignia of the Nowa Huta branch of Solidarity in which the “NH” of
Nowa Huta have become churches [Figure 3]. Golonka-Czajkowska pointed out that
the memorial is made with steel from the former Lenin steelworks. </span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 2: Workers under cross in a monument to Solidarity. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/09/pinney/NOWA3_sm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/09/pinney/NOWA3_sm.jpg" height="400" width="331" /></a></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 3: Image of a church in the monument. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The sinister batons of the riot police in the first plaque refer to a
foundational struggle for a church in the “city without God” starting in 1957
and culminating in a battle with mass arrests in 1960. The site of that battle is
presided over by a large statue of John Paul II. Bishop Karol Wotija, as he
then was, was a key player in many of these events and his presence hangs over
the town as a retrospective figure of legitimation. But first we go to see a
Basilica and traditional wooden church [Figure 4] on the edge of the township,
evidence, Monika Golonka-Czajkowska suggests, that this was never really a town
without God. The Basilica <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(now also
colonized by a regulation large statue of John-Paul II) was originally a
private institution for monks but was forced as early as 1951 to open its doors
to the public and held as many as 10 masses each Sunday for God-deprived
steelworkers of the Polish People’s Republic [Figure 5]. </span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 4: Wooden exterior of church. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 5: View of Basilica. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Then we head to the earliest buildings: villas surrounded by trees where
a large contingent of Roma were housed, elegant blocks built around courtyards
(of the kind which I previously seen and admired in Warsaw), and a kindergarten,
serene in the early summer greenery, lacking only the hearty cries of joyous
socialist children to complete the illusion of arcadia [Figure 6]. The green spaces
(of which there are many) seem to be reverting to meadowland and forest. We
stop at the very earliest block, in a square until recently named after a
Stackhanovite steelworker whose renovation in 2006 caused much debate about the
desirability of preserving the “heritage” of a township now suffering from high
un-employment and escalating crime. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 6: 'Arcadia'. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">We travel to the gates of the steelworks, now renamed (as late as 2006)
the Huta im T. Sendzimira after a Polish metallurgist (Tadeusz Sendzimir) who
worked for most of his life in the USA. An impressive sculpted steel logo
announces the name on a vast scale [Figure 7]. Lenin seems to have been simply
deleted to be replaced by a more national hero. Arcelor Mittal’s ownership of
the plant is announced only by a small plastic sign below and a tiny fluttering
flag. They have reduced the workforce from 30,000 to 6,000 and the casual
viewer might easily get the impression that they don’t want to waste money on
rebranding in case they sell-up. By the central management offices (Socialist
Realist but with a series of curlicues along the roof battlement echoing the
finials of the cloth market in the medieval central Krakow square) there is a
noticeboard announcing recent deaths in the area. It was strategically located
to be visible to the whole township as it entered and left work: now it seems
like a fragment of a larger ruin [Figure 8]. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 7: Entrance to steel mill. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure <span style="color: #444444;">8</span>: <span style="color: #444444;">Notice of deaths</span>. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">We pass a supermarket in one of the Socialist Realist arcades which used
to house an international workers’ club where steelworkers gathered to discuss
international affairs, we admire the preserved interiors of a couple of shops
in which 1950s pendulous ceramic chandeliers hang strangely low, and enter a
restaurant designed to cater to the needs of Orientalist tourists in search of
“ostalgia” and a communism that has been safely buried. The café is opposite
the former location of a huge sculpture of Lenin, now in a Swedish theme park.
It sports an image of Lenin in the window [Figure 9], and small busts of Lenin
on tables inside [Figure 10]. I try to persuade Monika to have lunch there but
without success. Her preferred option, a local “bar” with a completely anonymous
façade and extraordinary minimal interior furniture, has attracted a huge queue
of customers. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 9: View of restaurant window. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 10: Interior of restaurant. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Finally a trio of churches, two of which have now made Nowa Huta famous.
Firstly the site of the battle “under the cross” [Figure 11], then the first of
two modern edifices of considerable architectural interest. The first
celebrates <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Madonna_of_Cz%C4%99stochowa" target="_blank">Our Lady of Czestochawa</a>, a Madonna who has become Queen of Poland,
heroically suffering (and surviving) Swedish, Nazi and Soviet depredations, the
two scars on her right cheek “elongating” in sympathy with national suffering
[Figure 12]. The geometrical roof structure is striking, a sanctified
“constructivism”, a kind of meccano saturated with godliness.</span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 11: Site of battle. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 12: Our Lady of Czestochowa. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Last, the truly
remarkable<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.arkapana.pl/" target="_blank">“Holy Ark” (Arka Pana)</a>, a
conical structure with a boat on top, complete with anchor. Inside is a truly
revolutionary space, completely devoid of any hieratic directionality. The cone
is studded with millions of pebbles brought by local inhabitant at the request
of the architect [Figure 13]. Golonka-Czajkowska met many people in her
research who could locate “their pebble”, identifying with the atomic structure
of this transcendent object [Figure 14]. The Catholic Church, it turned out
knew how to mobilise the people much better than the communists, the
architecture of Gods resonating more powerfully than the architecture of the
state. </span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 13: View of the Holy Ark. Photo from Wikicommons.</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 14: External wall of the Ark. Photo by author</span>.</td></tr>
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-29340295990319510902015-09-10T16:04:00.001-07:002015-10-02T13:26:46.823-07:00Maya Spirituality: A photographic exploration of contemporary Maya ritual in Guatemala<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="background: white;">Through a series of photos, </span><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.dk/p/john-j-mcgraw.html" target="_blank"><span style="background: white;">John J. McGraw</span></a><span style="background: white;"> presents some of the basic forms of ritual practice among contemporary Mayas in the western highlands of Guatemala.</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="background: white;">MLA Citation Format:</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="background: white;">McGraw, John J.</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="background: white;">"Maya Spirituality:</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="background: white;">A photographic exploration of contemporary Maya ritual in Guatemala."</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="background: white;">Web blog post. Material Religions. 9 September 2015. [date of access]</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="background: white;">Maya spirituality, as practiced in the highlands of western Guatemala, includes a vibrant tradition of ritual typically practiced outdoors, in nature.</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Altars</span></span></h3>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Altars, both private and public, indoors and outdoors, play a prominent role in Maya spirituality. They are sites of ritual practice--worship, meditation, and celebration--and places thought to hold special power. Offerings are commonly made at altars. These offerings are made with a reciprocal expectation of receiving. Just as humans are capable of offering the lords of the days, or <i>nawales</i>, things that they cannot otherwise provide for themselves, so do humans expect nature to be bountiful with its food sources and other blessings. It is a kind of gift exchange cycle. But gift in the sense of giving, not as a simple present, because these gifts are actually the very "stuff of life." Both parties provide each other consistent sustenance, made using a variety of offerings, accompanied with a deep sense of gratitude, and, most essentially, infused with beauty and hope. </span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjb6Upo_s26IOOpljRZ4D7DR6F0nDCs2E2-4NBlWI9RmFxGafosJIhMK1_ker2qNA8xxSICiPt4YZN1OlrnXMzPbVxwNNEy50MnbbuNxp7b-zZ8MrkXGcQQBHIoeDxxwB0TwEl6rwHVpgO6/s1600/Altar+1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjb6Upo_s26IOOpljRZ4D7DR6F0nDCs2E2-4NBlWI9RmFxGafosJIhMK1_ker2qNA8xxSICiPt4YZN1OlrnXMzPbVxwNNEy50MnbbuNxp7b-zZ8MrkXGcQQBHIoeDxxwB0TwEl6rwHVpgO6/s400/Altar+1.JPG" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 1: Personal altar of a </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaqchikel_people" target="_blank">Kaqchikel</a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <i>ajq'ij</i> (ritual specialist), Xajaxac. </span></span></span></div>
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by author.</span></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</span></span> <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidvb2wbyIMfFgSPVDvbHPsa_Fs9abAJUQ0FJBAyB4Oa6adfQ6Pl9vxHVkVRuFL3vpNSYEhEu9puTM3LXFSGkuJWNjc_gWo5Lqzntq1Euxi9FJ0_HL5NQiGikmBIMPUrqD6d25hu-sjRvFB/s1600/Altar+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidvb2wbyIMfFgSPVDvbHPsa_Fs9abAJUQ0FJBAyB4Oa6adfQ6Pl9vxHVkVRuFL3vpNSYEhEu9puTM3LXFSGkuJWNjc_gWo5Lqzntq1Euxi9FJ0_HL5NQiGikmBIMPUrqD6d25hu-sjRvFB/s400/Altar+2.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 2: Personal altar of a </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%27iche%27_people" target="_blank">K'iche'</a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <i>ajq'ij</i> (ritual specialist), </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichicastenango">Chichicastenango</a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<div class="separator" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">On the right is a mannequin of "Maximón" (aka, San Simón, Rilaj Mam, ... ), an enigmatic indigenous "saint." And though he's typically represented as a Ladino, a non-Maya, he's the chief proponent of tradition and <i>costumbre</i>, the "old ways," especially ritual.</span></span></div>
<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEho1qwlPsqeulC_VjIWDDP-OLaURvxsldDi3aGKB1VsiL_Ls1FJ4QnJUyoMuhLSfZ3MtLkEed58L0TBkNnowuLDxl0Nlcs78ZGUFvGL-xOH0Q5U9Elzpy5QPeUGeyWPFQgwVvVHsy12BVz6/s1600/Altar+3.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEho1qwlPsqeulC_VjIWDDP-OLaURvxsldDi3aGKB1VsiL_Ls1FJ4QnJUyoMuhLSfZ3MtLkEed58L0TBkNnowuLDxl0Nlcs78ZGUFvGL-xOH0Q5U9Elzpy5QPeUGeyWPFQgwVvVHsy12BVz6/s400/Altar+3.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 3: Pascual Abaj, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichicastenango">Chichicastenango</a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 9"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Indent"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="header"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footer"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of figures"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope return"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<div class="separator" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Pascual Abaj, just above Chichicastenango, is one of the most famous sites in the highlands. Some of the old idols at this altar had been damaged by feverish evangelicals over the years. Crosses are commonly raised at such sites, both because the equilateral cross is a very important Maya symbol as well as because the cross serves as an effective amulet for warding off zealots' undue attention.</span></span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj49iyuoExgU0_VrfdeuDRLQrNXj71R3BbKPh-0nV6ovOg7qR64sIsv6_nUWX68yoopLyrvwrXqnZM6_z0xKAiwxZhOkVBACVxBd6Y99mUvcX1DgiPQvnaIpQJJTeNHn726CILqzUz-w6ke/s1600/Altar+4.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj49iyuoExgU0_VrfdeuDRLQrNXj71R3BbKPh-0nV6ovOg7qR64sIsv6_nUWX68yoopLyrvwrXqnZM6_z0xKAiwxZhOkVBACVxBd6Y99mUvcX1DgiPQvnaIpQJJTeNHn726CILqzUz-w6ke/s400/Altar+4.JPG" width="300" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 4: Altar near a sacred lake, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicabal">Chicabal</a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-4HexBgEeteO3PMVpzFq8riAs-ZH8dtjTJ3tvLNuw3X15STOT79wflcv2gxWMewDpljhwLpHPywEULj8vXIoCDMjjcyyW4UA9FCU3Acre5B7NgXa9W1xgQLQz0Y_l0QJs-TpsBXfOH9dv/s1600/Altar+5.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-4HexBgEeteO3PMVpzFq8riAs-ZH8dtjTJ3tvLNuw3X15STOT79wflcv2gxWMewDpljhwLpHPywEULj8vXIoCDMjjcyyW4UA9FCU3Acre5B7NgXa9W1xgQLQz0Y_l0QJs-TpsBXfOH9dv/s400/Altar+5.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 5: Chutisabal, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momostenango">Momostenango</a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<div class="separator" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Public altars, such as this one, chutisabal, are often known as "burning places" because ceremonial fires are the chief ritual activity done there. In the last two captions, the suffix "-bal" is at the end of each word. This means instrument or place for a certain kind of activity, both having a semantic core regarding function--objects or places for a human use--though categorized unusually across two domains.</span></span></div>
<br />
<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLdx3txWj55wV39VXdXuFcYh-XusLSzXbwmwxvvt7RgQ0vNqPZmZQ_D08gydDd-TZ7VB8Uq8x7TQP-oNL2CS0yHb2hSm8fQP8s_VfRgpWvR-yrJNiCq-07slOPuySvqCkcgcskAj7cSm4C/s1600/Altar+6.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLdx3txWj55wV39VXdXuFcYh-XusLSzXbwmwxvvt7RgQ0vNqPZmZQ_D08gydDd-TZ7VB8Uq8x7TQP-oNL2CS0yHb2hSm8fQP8s_VfRgpWvR-yrJNiCq-07slOPuySvqCkcgcskAj7cSm4C/s400/Altar+6.JPG" width="300" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 6: </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuevas_de_Candelaria">Cuevas de Candelaria</a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<div class="separator" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Caves have long been revered sites. Rituals, including fire ceremonies, are commonly offered at the entrance to, or even within, caves.</span></span></div>
<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtwi3v4VhIS6C9TF8x2_IH70hpVGpB147vBvRvinhhMZT4ylfCrqnb0FvDvmYqTDq11Et8RllVBoVWXHtue80dZYKidwt_Qgm89XPTkP0m2FNUjsce6c17Ysb4-F4ii3PVNM-5Wh9gTml6/s1600/Altar+7.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtwi3v4VhIS6C9TF8x2_IH70hpVGpB147vBvRvinhhMZT4ylfCrqnb0FvDvmYqTDq11Et8RllVBoVWXHtue80dZYKidwt_Qgm89XPTkP0m2FNUjsce6c17Ysb4-F4ii3PVNM-5Wh9gTml6/s400/Altar+7.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="ES-GT" style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 7: Tzanjuyu, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pedro_La_Laguna"><span lang="ES-GT" style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT;">San Pedro La Laguna</span></a></span><span lang="ES-GT" style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. </span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<div class="separator" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Altars are frequently in stunning natural settings that afford grand vistas and special experiences (e.g. lakes, waterfalls, caves, monoliths, mountains).</span></span></div>
<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlt-x-KBU8gRyDSrHNAZInYd6tUZTeN-6aEld5o4jyuJTGe-eo7dhzfTAoSZ1cgogVWYPcIngRlqMDVYq1qdN8nQFffrwCGoCgsabEDMDCx6fHzdrGFU4XdnlbZT6RInQeiWyy2b2_AtIa/s1600/Altar+8.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlt-x-KBU8gRyDSrHNAZInYd6tUZTeN-6aEld5o4jyuJTGe-eo7dhzfTAoSZ1cgogVWYPcIngRlqMDVYq1qdN8nQFffrwCGoCgsabEDMDCx6fHzdrGFU4XdnlbZT6RInQeiWyy2b2_AtIa/s400/Altar+8.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="ES-GT" style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 8: Iglesia Santo Tomás, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichicastenango"><span lang="ES-GT" style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT;">Chichicastenango</span></a></span><span lang="ES-GT" style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. </span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<div class="separator" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Altars are even in front of, or within, Catholic churches. Ritualists often make offerings on the steps in front of Santo Tomás.</span></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h3 class="separator" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Calendars </span></span></h3>
<div class="separator" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQBYsITRrzA-grwWpQ3UIV3YpTEh8uJG-V6fDxbGf42USpXCqgbzAdZOMq66eK_RkmK6I0wHNxnrFQ_FaMTDpVhANA95YwC6mPlE0_NHJaookeC0YE1VvBuzHHPLjOFPbsnlHuGqOJ-QRh/s1600/Calendar+1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQBYsITRrzA-grwWpQ3UIV3YpTEh8uJG-V6fDxbGf42USpXCqgbzAdZOMq66eK_RkmK6I0wHNxnrFQ_FaMTDpVhANA95YwC6mPlE0_NHJaookeC0YE1VvBuzHHPLjOFPbsnlHuGqOJ-QRh/s400/Calendar+1.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 9: Mural on the house of a </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%27iche%27_people" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">K'iche'</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <i>ajq'ij</i>, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zunil"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Zunil</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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Name="toa heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The 260-day ritual calendar known as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzolk%27in" target="_blank"><i>Cholq'ij</i></a> ("ordering of the days") is at the core of ritual throughout the highlands. As archaeology and anthropology have developed, they have enriched the knowledge and practices of Mayas who readily integrate this new information about their revered ancestors into their own processes of identity-formation. For instance, the icons and cartouches featured in the mural above were long known to be hieroglyphs but their meanings were lost. During the 20th century, social scientists, in dialogue with contemporary Maya peoples, deciphered more than 90% of the hieroglyphs from the Classic Period (250CE-900CE) and these numbers, icons, and cartouches were linked back to their proper identifications. The cartouches represent each of the 20 days (<i>nawales</i>) that, combined with numbers one through thirteen, yield the 260-day ritual cycle. Now these <i>nawales </i>from Classic Period iconography are visible everywhere as: business emblems, features of <i>huipiles </i>(blouses), keychains, and jewelry. </span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQZZF5T8DvR3M0J_RW7c3MmayE0aJuMkuP2XjAP_R9QUqemcUT0sEMuY-iph7pZFAKa7nN4Saqs0Uz2D2d-IVW9RpYtmCJTKxwxm9O2eFsV3qUA9xD6y54M8VqrP88QO5CElroeeJd7r1i/s1600/Calendar+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQZZF5T8DvR3M0J_RW7c3MmayE0aJuMkuP2XjAP_R9QUqemcUT0sEMuY-iph7pZFAKa7nN4Saqs0Uz2D2d-IVW9RpYtmCJTKxwxm9O2eFsV3qUA9xD6y54M8VqrP88QO5CElroeeJd7r1i/s400/Calendar+2.JPG" width="265" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 10: Sculpture comemorating December 21, 2012, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Juan_La_Laguna" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">San Juan La Laguna</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">This impressive sculpture, approximately 10m long by 3m high, is dated to commemorate the </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon#Mayan_references_to_b.27ak.27tun_13" target="_blank">end of the 13th <i>b'ak'tun</i></a></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">, thought by academics to have been on December 21, 2012.</span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ceremonies</span></span></b></h3>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1jdQCLkLUNbzO3cLxX6ifNnAuwAbDDuziXVm5_Gmkt79pjW5kYArhh8Cxm0CNnMyxdNdpBlZtFSR8YjRTSCQ7-jRKL71xd6K3gTEyq81Go6gfUchV2Y1L4XY4ZMIWzOBZknRSnL93Girm/s1600/Ceremonia+1dx.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1jdQCLkLUNbzO3cLxX6ifNnAuwAbDDuziXVm5_Gmkt79pjW5kYArhh8Cxm0CNnMyxdNdpBlZtFSR8YjRTSCQ7-jRKL71xd6K3gTEyq81Go6gfUchV2Y1L4XY4ZMIWzOBZknRSnL93Girm/s400/Ceremonia+1dx.JPG" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Figure 11: K'iche' <i>ajq'ij </i>making offering to a ceremonial fire, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momostenango" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Momostenango</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Photo by </span><a href="http://www.xygalatas.com/" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dimitris Xygalatas</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This K'iche' <i>ajq'ij</i> is finalizing preparations for a ceremonial fire. These fires are celebrated for all sorts of purposes. The offerings burned in the fire frequently include sweet items, like honey, chocolate, candies, or pure sugar, as seen in the photo above. The aromas of these sweet things burning is sustenance for the <i>nawales</i>. </span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEVUgmk7j9CufGWGim2zM0hjIZBZbu6UEp6bX23SfdwMOsL6jt-93u29Xlu6MOwMY49dByiiRhmSWp2m_IvJJ0Y8WELLIOeAKZR2MAv9wAzczq8hclV3xHTSkQ6jVRjHjt1mgWQq9woy1B/s1600/Ceremonia+2dx.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEVUgmk7j9CufGWGim2zM0hjIZBZbu6UEp6bX23SfdwMOsL6jt-93u29Xlu6MOwMY49dByiiRhmSWp2m_IvJJ0Y8WELLIOeAKZR2MAv9wAzczq8hclV3xHTSkQ6jVRjHjt1mgWQq9woy1B/s400/Ceremonia+2dx.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 12: </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%27iche%27_people" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">K'iche'</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <i>ajq'ij </i>beautifully organizing offerings to be burned</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">in the ceremonial fire, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momostenango" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Momostenango</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. </span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="http://www.xygalatas.com/" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Dimitris Xygalatas</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8_ya7ydWZDENwyNppofz6exMEPh5GDYkZUTZvSGfou0uxIIeJeOTdSTKxCmfnm6e3DmJQI9UhgFNBWw3UrqGtk2XMQyrjS8Ex0MJMV7lgVb0R2YEAhpXxXyh12CtbjlTKgDmPXqwxi3Ed/s1600/Ceremonia+3bmh.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8_ya7ydWZDENwyNppofz6exMEPh5GDYkZUTZvSGfou0uxIIeJeOTdSTKxCmfnm6e3DmJQI9UhgFNBWw3UrqGtk2XMQyrjS8Ex0MJMV7lgVb0R2YEAhpXxXyh12CtbjlTKgDmPXqwxi3Ed/s400/Ceremonia+3bmh.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 13: <i>Ceremonia Maya</i>, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_Guatemala" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Antigua</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="http://biosci3.ucdavis.edu/Faculty/Profile/View/14478" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Mark Huising</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">.</span></span></span></span></td></tr>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The <i>ceremonia Maya</i> is known by a few names throughout the highlands, the Spanish <i>ceremonia </i>or <i>ceremonia Maya</i> being the most common. Other names include <i>xukuleem </i>and <i>mejeleem</i>, both referring to kneeling or being on one's knees, and <i>kotz'i'j</i>, the most common word for flower and "adornment" or, one might say, "pageantry."</span></span></div>
<br />
<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjav2JRTJ6Prg0Q0H3lV2wsfHVitjNQaP3E_Qc3xnikx2IfqTsCOgxVMsFhKGa8eUpjaEsMbk2bOUt3MWxRiPCBfelMwz3ixX5Fi77kb67eD2if33O5J6beuYm13gbCohTRsPK7CYAK0vrI/s1600/Ceremonia+3.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjav2JRTJ6Prg0Q0H3lV2wsfHVitjNQaP3E_Qc3xnikx2IfqTsCOgxVMsFhKGa8eUpjaEsMbk2bOUt3MWxRiPCBfelMwz3ixX5Fi77kb67eD2if33O5J6beuYm13gbCohTRsPK7CYAK0vrI/s400/Ceremonia+3.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 14: Altar in front of a Catholic church, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solol%C3%A1" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Sololá</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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Name="toa heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Catholicism has often had a chummy relationship with Maya ritual, at other times not so much. This congregation of <i>ajq'ijab'</i> (pl.) was able to celebrate a <i>ceremonia Maya</i> at a special altar, made just for the purpose, in the courtyard of a Catholic church.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOJrCSnDJQxK-k6zFzv2vK_xRzpMIJqqucHQLvY9YZerpXVB_Nl1rUz8Net57l8g8zpzjmKk4FBOjQDPHiSsZIyMQ9QSDLHcsnrYZqg2MGuyzJbZuta6Wt_eM5uZ8IdSGkC7iBBreUZpa6/s1600/Ceremonia+3a.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOJrCSnDJQxK-k6zFzv2vK_xRzpMIJqqucHQLvY9YZerpXVB_Nl1rUz8Net57l8g8zpzjmKk4FBOjQDPHiSsZIyMQ9QSDLHcsnrYZqg2MGuyzJbZuta6Wt_eM5uZ8IdSGkC7iBBreUZpa6/s400/Ceremonia+3a.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 15: Altar at archaeological site, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%27umarkaj" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Q'umarkaj</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Ceremonies are celebrated in places thought to be holy for a variety of reasons. Archaeological sites, ruins of the ancestors, are uniformly taken to be very holy places. Traditionalists visit these places for rituals and other celebrations.</span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2ZS_sBxDybIftv4KjJmpxBssZntTwZKKXcf3ca0kEz4fp28YVCDc0go-e2dFrwQ7gUcWSKnmdybddref0WjDoKYsMsffTDkp5NSuFXigEsllJMxhq2P9TWGSo8WS35HNgVH6fTg76XdEw/s1600/Ceremonia+3c.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2ZS_sBxDybIftv4KjJmpxBssZntTwZKKXcf3ca0kEz4fp28YVCDc0go-e2dFrwQ7gUcWSKnmdybddref0WjDoKYsMsffTDkp5NSuFXigEsllJMxhq2P9TWGSo8WS35HNgVH6fTg76XdEw/s400/Ceremonia+3c.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 16: Music and, in this case, dance are common at rituals </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pedro_La_Laguna" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">San Pedro La Laguna</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh42PmkuOsjaaPXLRYMVlQGtyvMMQPTcNy2kELqh1dS2pQl8MylPTE9oMCyU-fkEqvup6U_Foe6MQuJONwGbx09KVXUfRW06qiuiqUdqmTIDxDs4vXszkekhQYrcFc5lfN-HOCAFGjgBMHW/s1600/Ceremonia+4.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh42PmkuOsjaaPXLRYMVlQGtyvMMQPTcNy2kELqh1dS2pQl8MylPTE9oMCyU-fkEqvup6U_Foe6MQuJONwGbx09KVXUfRW06qiuiqUdqmTIDxDs4vXszkekhQYrcFc5lfN-HOCAFGjgBMHW/s400/Ceremonia+4.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 17: A nice arrangement of offerings for the fire, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Juan_La_Laguna" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">San Juan La Laguna</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpmNUJ9BcgPD2sIzQfrQAJoJiMZ02wsfusvOtRb5kKydodJaZAEQ9Bc4KTP-2DIlFhyphenhyphenj40kxIehcVSAjY7hPns7aC2K3cwnBeiO-gSebuoPkZetehGoroymlFBNW5BQ_MQP3tbo9-iZvLT/s1600/Ceremonia+5.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpmNUJ9BcgPD2sIzQfrQAJoJiMZ02wsfusvOtRb5kKydodJaZAEQ9Bc4KTP-2DIlFhyphenhyphenj40kxIehcVSAjY7hPns7aC2K3cwnBeiO-gSebuoPkZetehGoroymlFBNW5BQ_MQP3tbo9-iZvLT/s400/Ceremonia+5.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="ES-GT" style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 18: Materials for a <i>ceremonia Maya</i>, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Juan_La_Laguna" target="_blank"><span lang="ES-GT" style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT;">San Juan La Laguna</span></a></span><span lang="ES-GT" style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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Name="List Continue 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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Name="Body Text Indent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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Name="HTML Preformatted"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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Name="Outline List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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Name="Table Colorful 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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Name="Table Grid 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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Name="Table List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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Name="Table List 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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Name="Table 3D effects 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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Name="Table Subtle 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" 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Name="Subtle Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin-top:0in;
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Myriad ingredients go into the <i>ceremonia Maya</i> (fire ceremony). Typically, practitioners offer more elaborate, and expensive, offerings in proportion to the importance of the request. Above are pine pitch brickets, known as <i>ensartes</i>, compressed into aromatic disks and stored as cylinders in maize husks, as another form of food.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Materials </span></span></h3>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgscR43FdwTgSfcLzDogte8I9C30Y9-8z54DZDLIeqyZNpfpPH84euq7KpUgyMrbH8Xh03He4MDxYKy8JU0DEqs6iVe-fwdaskmxn9aITAo7Ix3iWxYdduri15dPjKPgYLQH-CodTIxIvWz/s1600/Ceremonia+6.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgscR43FdwTgSfcLzDogte8I9C30Y9-8z54DZDLIeqyZNpfpPH84euq7KpUgyMrbH8Xh03He4MDxYKy8JU0DEqs6iVe-fwdaskmxn9aITAo7Ix3iWxYdduri15dPjKPgYLQH-CodTIxIvWz/s400/Ceremonia+6.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 19: <i>Candelaria</i>, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecp%C3%A1n_Guatemala" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Tecpán</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In every major town (~3000 or more people) between Guatemala City and the Pacific Coast, one can find a <i>candelaria</i>. While this is translatable as a candlery, these stores specialize in distributing the variety of goods and offerings required for Maya ritual.</span></span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgo7zMslwIHVhwRDBQFhKumpsLzKMfZgCWaWMbg-J6Nu8rtBKan_tupaLuI4vKhH6IKt3-x-x4UAit_I5F1aJm8YHyNnDtpDNfiAgacTF-6EbSjycCMLCQxlx3pyL803wpe9uQxz3XDBXgR/s1600/Ceremonia+7.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgo7zMslwIHVhwRDBQFhKumpsLzKMfZgCWaWMbg-J6Nu8rtBKan_tupaLuI4vKhH6IKt3-x-x4UAit_I5F1aJm8YHyNnDtpDNfiAgacTF-6EbSjycCMLCQxlx3pyL803wpe9uQxz3XDBXgR/s400/Ceremonia+7.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 20: <i>Candelaria</i>, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momostenango" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Momostenango</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpP8YjHhs0agbV9oGewfHu5fii6Svd7jGtjFDn6NHgBL1O9RO3SbZ-tas_xZ1WsNbt2z_lTujLe0mQ9pk_amN7BFKqijrFfIudCJPBSyf1WSJ2LxNzqqBhoU7pvr7c1w-m3ImilL2G_Wfc/s1600/Ceremonia+8.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpP8YjHhs0agbV9oGewfHu5fii6Svd7jGtjFDn6NHgBL1O9RO3SbZ-tas_xZ1WsNbt2z_lTujLe0mQ9pk_amN7BFKqijrFfIudCJPBSyf1WSJ2LxNzqqBhoU7pvr7c1w-m3ImilL2G_Wfc/s400/Ceremonia+8.JPG" width="300" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 21: <i>Aguas floridas</i> and other sweet-smelling items are requirements</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">for the <i>ceremonia Maya, </i></span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pedro_La_Laguna" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">San Pedro La Laguna</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikhW-MsxEXESsQwFW6wHeYF7PSBe_WOsetgyCSVpErN2P_YFxFoKV7DIZukH8nZ5qBs3ib9nakE4NDIpNyVqMf_gP_5mzL8s_AFWQEt0N16XyccEU1uB2_Nr3lcrzXrm9S44c3MzqRYrA_/s1600/Ceremonia+9.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikhW-MsxEXESsQwFW6wHeYF7PSBe_WOsetgyCSVpErN2P_YFxFoKV7DIZukH8nZ5qBs3ib9nakE4NDIpNyVqMf_gP_5mzL8s_AFWQEt0N16XyccEU1uB2_Nr3lcrzXrm9S44c3MzqRYrA_/s400/Ceremonia+9.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 22: Balls of aromatic pine pitch<i>,</i> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pedro_La_Laguna" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">San Pedro La Laguna</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The pine pitch material used to make the <i>ensartes </i>mentioned above comes in a variety of other sizes and shapes.</span></span></div>
<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnhzaa9bHPIkAaitIRI6Hrt19QTHPM_tDDKV38m2xeZlP0dlUzeQ7VjZZryMJOiMJyJu5HvJJ83gCXDcohwvsngZb8HFjdXblDyYCxjbxYWxbIYynijL7JGOVBDkF4b9JkLDq7zH5GONWe/s1600/Ceremonia+10.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnhzaa9bHPIkAaitIRI6Hrt19QTHPM_tDDKV38m2xeZlP0dlUzeQ7VjZZryMJOiMJyJu5HvJJ83gCXDcohwvsngZb8HFjdXblDyYCxjbxYWxbIYynijL7JGOVBDkF4b9JkLDq7zH5GONWe/s400/Ceremonia+10.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 23: Multicolored candles<i>,</i> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pedro_La_Laguna" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">San Pedro La Laguna</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Though it is probably not a very old practice--such colorful candles only becoming available in the last few generations--the use of color has long been a central feature of highland Maya ritual. Colorful representations were probably accomplished through the use of flowers in the past rather than as seen today, as a mound of multicolored candles. Candles, though, have long been essential for private and public worship, just as in Catholicism. The four colors above are central for Maya cosmology: red represents east, black west, white north, and yellow south. Each of these directions has 5 of the 20 <i>nawales </i>specifically associated with it. Proper orientation is important in a number of rituals.</span></span></div>
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<h3 style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i>Bailes </i></span></span></h3>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPolJ0Z6urQVfV1pCV9qVx-5svw8diIVhUARIWNX0P_Nd7kXughfnpXpcvsm4xiaoGenI02v90h_L31askr_Pi8A-6gfrynP7_8sCX4-OByx3pss9tbWXF1Dq0UfuqKP3bDimMw0zcE4db/s1600/Dances+1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPolJ0Z6urQVfV1pCV9qVx-5svw8diIVhUARIWNX0P_Nd7kXughfnpXpcvsm4xiaoGenI02v90h_L31askr_Pi8A-6gfrynP7_8sCX4-OByx3pss9tbWXF1Dq0UfuqKP3bDimMw0zcE4db/s400/Dances+1.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 24: <i>Feria</i>, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichicastenango"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Chichicastenango</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i>Bailes </i>and <i>convites</i>, great dances and masked processions, are imporant occasions in Maya communities throughout Guatemala. A number of tales, both mythological and historical, are enacted each year through these celebrations.</span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjh84uvtyPS4wfXbIVbjwitP_ARy08fWwDWYir6aPojZIHwuhLhJwCk0uIY49eA5CSSQeIr90DH2hdRI8Mu-kKO5qcrzw8nPSCLuv4jBCGvm3td7lBiUXmyPI5ljhGLeI4Y1VE5UFdqewO4/s1600/Dances+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjh84uvtyPS4wfXbIVbjwitP_ARy08fWwDWYir6aPojZIHwuhLhJwCk0uIY49eA5CSSQeIr90DH2hdRI8Mu-kKO5qcrzw8nPSCLuv4jBCGvm3td7lBiUXmyPI5ljhGLeI4Y1VE5UFdqewO4/s400/Dances+2.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 25: Costumes for Baile del Torito, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichicastenango"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Chichicastenango</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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</span></span> <span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Maximón</span></span></h3>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></span></h3>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnlCa9Fe1laSSh7vKwN9O13PpSU3urpZKxQP_V89nwwfZKp6B4JhKT3ed6QT150CN7KQfk6kV6-O2mb4_TMV-QA63p9puiDBoYRu2rtHJs3TYbQU0NRH2BqqQdc9tz2c70tto9NWnJdUYE/s1600/Maximon+1mh.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnlCa9Fe1laSSh7vKwN9O13PpSU3urpZKxQP_V89nwwfZKp6B4JhKT3ed6QT150CN7KQfk6kV6-O2mb4_TMV-QA63p9puiDBoYRu2rtHJs3TYbQU0NRH2BqqQdc9tz2c70tto9NWnJdUYE/s400/Maximon+1mh.JPG" width="266" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 26: </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim%C3%B3n" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Maximón</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Atitl%C3%A1n" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Santiago Atitlán</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="http://biosci3.ucdavis.edu/Faculty/Profile/View/14478" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Mark Huising</span></a>.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Perhaps the most mysterious, and infamous, figure in Maya spirituality is best known as </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim%C3%B3n" target="_blank">Maximón</a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">, but also known as San Simón, Judas Iscariot, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D0H5Ob7dbts" target="_blank">Rilaj Mam</a>, and Mam, among many others.</span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbs7q1_4boU6K1OIPCEM6L8cMLc72QSCvl4igN7znxB3sVumDbVLVwj0_jbX6cIUeqLVGl_-KTdmYSdCzXk1IPBsMrsDUbxmK2iZrPwuvuXe3nvp4bAhn809xaAge41MRn4akm2dLLkmT-/s1600/Maximon+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbs7q1_4boU6K1OIPCEM6L8cMLc72QSCvl4igN7znxB3sVumDbVLVwj0_jbX6cIUeqLVGl_-KTdmYSdCzXk1IPBsMrsDUbxmK2iZrPwuvuXe3nvp4bAhn809xaAge41MRn4akm2dLLkmT-/s400/Maximon+2.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 27: Procession of <i>Rilaj Mam</i>, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Atitl%C3%A1n" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Santiago Atitlán</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMqOpDs4ciuz6GwKzRXXS4GERRLw-EzTM0iUXuoNQ1gqehM2dWAS1GFjYuQWIKtqKhAnTG6ny-ggRYdhrF_YAE6G2MbUYtwvxUaUc3CKTuFCMIVBqdbQM1x48FLdTVNDHIiOzql9ouoTF3/s1600/Maximon+2a.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMqOpDs4ciuz6GwKzRXXS4GERRLw-EzTM0iUXuoNQ1gqehM2dWAS1GFjYuQWIKtqKhAnTG6ny-ggRYdhrF_YAE6G2MbUYtwvxUaUc3CKTuFCMIVBqdbQM1x48FLdTVNDHIiOzql9ouoTF3/s400/Maximon+2a.JPG" width="265" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 28: <i>Rilaj Mam</i>, in court, at the end of his procession,</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Atitl%C3%A1n" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Santiago Atitlán</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8jR0DDye7Tnh7XZ8TPB5OoIdv1hwS5D6i_d0vUhyphenhyphenw4tVhKA0N9IODO8n2I__8HfmgMXpl5efBKZv58OB6OO21-u5amZEjqixUePEVqsfNbS8Z3HzVT8M43tEg3jAlSjQdazA9c5-BcIob/s1600/Maximon+3.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8jR0DDye7Tnh7XZ8TPB5OoIdv1hwS5D6i_d0vUhyphenhyphenw4tVhKA0N9IODO8n2I__8HfmgMXpl5efBKZv58OB6OO21-u5amZEjqixUePEVqsfNbS8Z3HzVT8M43tEg3jAlSjQdazA9c5-BcIob/s400/Maximon+3.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="ES-GT" style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 29: </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim%C3%B3n" target="_blank"><span lang="ES-GT" style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT;">Maximón</span></a></span><span lang="ES-GT" style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">, San Jorge La Laguna. </span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjik7jdU8C1auouWtL3y4W-_OIdcBpdvzHeh14BiXTTNZFli6epuq6-ih_ArqPuTAhyphenhyphen5qYaIS63Ns1o48ElsiF2yEQPSGVZHPhd3wMS_Ly1jnXv3Dhalsv28nL7PgtWu_ZyzfMpA7MigoDv/s1600/Maximon+4.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjik7jdU8C1auouWtL3y4W-_OIdcBpdvzHeh14BiXTTNZFli6epuq6-ih_ArqPuTAhyphenhyphen5qYaIS63Ns1o48ElsiF2yEQPSGVZHPhd3wMS_Ly1jnXv3Dhalsv28nL7PgtWu_ZyzfMpA7MigoDv/s400/Maximon+4.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="ES-GT" style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 30: </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim%C3%B3n" target="_blank"><span lang="ES-GT" style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT;">Maximón</span></a></span><span lang="ES-GT" style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">, San Jorge La Laguna. </span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Here, on the personal altar of a </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaqchikel_people" target="_blank">Kaqchikel</a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <i>ajq'ij, </i>one finds multiple representations of </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim%C3%B3n" target="_blank">Maximón</a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">, among a variety of other saints, deities, and religious figures.</span></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3TNI4gj0cTN5A0gEkxXZ3HRGC1l_069T5ACqqQXFcFvJMQlp0dqOJ7PosooPx9zjQnaRWHPWWsBWL3D6fkJ3lkhh0uw1ir9afkhHKVowLWTZUmNahAaoSLOJ9CQp0lWexE5gkdv8ncdOw/s1600/Stones+1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3TNI4gj0cTN5A0gEkxXZ3HRGC1l_069T5ACqqQXFcFvJMQlp0dqOJ7PosooPx9zjQnaRWHPWWsBWL3D6fkJ3lkhh0uw1ir9afkhHKVowLWTZUmNahAaoSLOJ9CQp0lWexE5gkdv8ncdOw/s400/Stones+1.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 31: <i>Aj Iq',</i> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichicastenango"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Chichicastenango</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i>Aj Iq'</i>, <i>kab'awil</i>, and other special stones are typical items on an <i>ajq'ij</i>'s altar. For a post on this blog about the role of stones in Maya spirituality, <a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/search/?q=hart" target="_blank">click here</a>.</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i>Tz'ite' </i></span></span></h3>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKHOjTpNdU8OcIFKTDpEU2FuL87fZPkWkTp83s1ryJ6zKZPe789hvEtY4lzgnFsKkHhFkTOvAzL-8dsCicv7I06Of_UPMtaQXeMelX0SPCintsi6LDCx0A-WCB5VfEmv_jsHML77YWJjAc/s1600/Tz%2527ite%2527+1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKHOjTpNdU8OcIFKTDpEU2FuL87fZPkWkTp83s1ryJ6zKZPe789hvEtY4lzgnFsKkHhFkTOvAzL-8dsCicv7I06Of_UPMtaQXeMelX0SPCintsi6LDCx0A-WCB5VfEmv_jsHML77YWJjAc/s400/Tz%2527ite%2527+1.JPG" width="300" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 32: Row of<i> tz'ite' </i>trees serving as fence, Santa Lucía Utatlán.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i>Tz'ite' </i>(<i>Erythrina corallodendron</i>) is a squat and hardy tree, though its wood is not especially good for construction or combustion.<i> </i> Many legends and tales convey <i>tz'ite' </i>to be a communicative and powerful plant.<i> Tz'ite' </i>is frequently thought to be linked to <i>Rilaj Mam</i>, especially in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Atitl%C3%A1n" target="_blank">Santiago Atitlán</a>.</span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTU0GEv368NUyKR4uaWddFzNiki8NGrnPkgEcg-wDMBpWpL_pWmhyphenhyphenucapRC5PdRLGZCyMKaSd9QP57MgQ9Y7SnriS3XkK7eC-SRopr9idgpKeMQ1jxCBUJs6cKbr5WR8Ymg2SP-hg7h-uK/s1600/Tz%2527ite%2527+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTU0GEv368NUyKR4uaWddFzNiki8NGrnPkgEcg-wDMBpWpL_pWmhyphenhyphenucapRC5PdRLGZCyMKaSd9QP57MgQ9Y7SnriS3XkK7eC-SRopr9idgpKeMQ1jxCBUJs6cKbr5WR8Ymg2SP-hg7h-uK/s400/Tz%2527ite%2527+2.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="ES-GT" style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: ES-GT; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 33:<i> Tz'ite' </i>flowers. </span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Spanish name for <i>tz'ite' </i>is <i>palo de pito</i>, or "whistle tree." Its bright red flowers can be manipulated to serve as loud whistles.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjL6kDD9CGeSkBzBzgxagOpERnz32G-YsCkHxyOAAHhANnQTnNi46hTff29T0wBoWBv3pTSxjrwXGaaUuiatbxFNnEIPZACPN6ejs7SnWrzFNHHeojpJCgAWuPHSYZEtFclBiWCBuW_3tt8/s1600/Tz%2527ite%2527+3.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjL6kDD9CGeSkBzBzgxagOpERnz32G-YsCkHxyOAAHhANnQTnNi46hTff29T0wBoWBv3pTSxjrwXGaaUuiatbxFNnEIPZACPN6ejs7SnWrzFNHHeojpJCgAWuPHSYZEtFclBiWCBuW_3tt8/s400/Tz%2527ite%2527+3.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 34:<i> Tz'ite' </i>seed pod. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><i>Tz'ite' </i>produces seed pods full of bright red seeds that look remarkably like pinto beans, except for their bright hue.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWui_vbyteDXW3YAZvHZk5Jfq3iFwioeab0aaaq4FvLc7CtiA4-cMUg0GXp9PyVeAjTDZRzku3TX6G39KCKN6DoQ99mZuE1dgq4oPKbl2rtB-H98jyM7KfL96fYYu2VueTT-QoW3M6iPNm/s1600/Tz%2527ite%2527+4.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWui_vbyteDXW3YAZvHZk5Jfq3iFwioeab0aaaq4FvLc7CtiA4-cMUg0GXp9PyVeAjTDZRzku3TX6G39KCKN6DoQ99mZuE1dgq4oPKbl2rtB-H98jyM7KfL96fYYu2VueTT-QoW3M6iPNm/s400/Tz%2527ite%2527+4.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 35:<i> Tz'ite' </i>and other items of <i>la vara</i>. Photo by author.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><i>Tz'ite' </i></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">are the chief components in the <i>ajq'ij</i>'s holy bundle, known as <i>la vara</i> (Spanish for staff or rod), or simply <i>tz'ite'</i>. These bundles typically contain a symbolically important number of seeds, quartz crystals, and a variety of odds and ends, like small bones, minerals, archaeological items, and anything the <i>ajq'ij</i> encounters that s/he feels was particularly meant for <i>la vara</i>. The <i>ajq'ij</i> is awarded <i>la vara</i>, very much like a diploma, upon completion of a lengthy apprenticeship and initiation; often this is organized to be a 260-day period.</span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbZse7e1Z9Pp_MoBLoN3OnVEjnhCFmnQbQZqURDP35hwEem9IiO3cT5J40UAZUSW129fooSR2UnDD6r7sCPdywxs_ZK93gYnUpJwSQf5zBhrXlBKilRo2qDM9QgHbHq3kwRXdf6zgOiQ2T/s1600/Tz%2527ite%2527+5dx.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="263" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbZse7e1Z9Pp_MoBLoN3OnVEjnhCFmnQbQZqURDP35hwEem9IiO3cT5J40UAZUSW129fooSR2UnDD6r7sCPdywxs_ZK93gYnUpJwSQf5zBhrXlBKilRo2qDM9QgHbHq3kwRXdf6zgOiQ2T/s400/Tz%2527ite%2527+5dx.JPG" width="400" /></a></span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Figure 36:<i> </i></span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%27iche%27_people" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">K'iche'</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <i>ajq'ij </i>consulting her <i>tz'ite'</i>. Photo by </span><span style="font-family: "Arial",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="http://www.xygalatas.com/" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Dimitris Xygalatas</span></a></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">.</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Many <i>ajq'ijab'</i> have the ability and skill to consult <i>tz'ite' </i>for divinatory purposes. Different techniques for consulting <i>tz'ite' </i>are employed across the highlands. Clients come to these diviners with questions about their, typically grave, concerns. This divination session is most commonly known using the Spanish term <i>consulta</i>; seemingly, the same kind of professional consultation one might have with a doctor or a lawyer. The information, revelation, solution, or decision that emerges from one of these <i>consultas </i>can be enlightening, surprising, inspiring, cut-and-dried, nerve-wracking, conflict-generating, but, more than anything, opens a path where there had been none before.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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</span></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2297920294320667841.post-76191153779916611962015-08-26T20:40:00.001-07:002015-09-27T16:39:43.702-07:00New Images for New Publics: Oral-Visual Narratives of the Telangana<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><a href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/p/chandan-bose.html">Chandan Bose</a> analyses an oral-visual tradition of South India to argue that the efficacy of such storytelling is located not just in linguistic practice but in a performative 'doing'. That it is through acts of performance and participation that storytellers, audience and practice forge relationships with each other, invent new traditions, and confront the tensions of </span></span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">contemporary conditions of production and reception</span></span></span>. </span></span></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> <o:PixelsPerInch>72</o:PixelsPerInch> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--></div>
<a name='more'></a><div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</span></span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></span> <br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></span> <span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">MLA citation format:</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Bose</span>, Chandan<i>. </i></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"New Images for New Publics: Oral-Visual Narratives of the Telangana."</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Web blog post. <i>Material Religions</i>. 26 August 2015. [date of access]</span></span></div>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</span></span> <br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
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</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Based
on ethnography between 2012 and 2014 in the Telangana region in Southern India,
this paper looks at an oral-visual narrative tradition of the region called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Patapradarshana Katha</i> – the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">showing</i> and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">telling</i> of images. Over its course, this paper shall address the
ways in which contemporary conditions of production and reception of this
practice can be constructed through its:</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>Material
forms:</b> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">What</i> is shown? <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">How </i>is it told?</span></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>Agents:</b>
How do practitioners come to define their relationship with the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">contemporary</i>?</span></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">
</span></span></span></span>
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>Narrative
function:</b> Can these oral narratives embed <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">new
representations</i>? </span></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">
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<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>Own Self:</b> Does the practice possess a kind
of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">disembodied</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">agency</i> through which it seeks to define the fluidity of its
boundaries?</span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Largely
based on narratives encountered in the field, this paper shall move between
reflections of the performers and audiences about the practice, and my own
commentaries on how these reflections come to alter the construction of this
practice in everyday life. </span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image1.jpg" height="400" width="352" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 1: State of Telangana. Source: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telangana" target="_blank">Wikipedia</a></span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h2>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Introduction</span></h2>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Spread across the region of Telangana, are groups of travelling performers and story-tellers, collectively called <i>Adugukunetollu</i> in Telugu, which translates literally as ‘those who ask for what is already apportioned for them’. Some of these groups carry out their hereditary profession as story-tellers using the painted cloth scrolls, called <i>patam</i>, which means ‘image’. These scrolls depict painted images which are woven into a narrative by the story-tellers about the lineage of certain <i>jatis</i> (occupational communities) of the region, and how they came to be associated with their respective hereditary occupations. The community of traditional artists, called Nakasi paints the <i>patams</i> for all those communities of storytellers which narrate stories using painted images. Each storyteller community is in turn dependent upon their particular patron <i>jati</i>, to whom they narrate their <i>jati purana</i> (etiological myths), and are forbidden from asking remuneration from other <i>jatis</i>. The storytellers therefore are the patrons in relation to the painted scrolls, and they are the patronized in relation to the performance. </span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image2.jpg" height="298" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 2: A <i>patam</i>. Cherial village, Telangana, 2012. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Photo by author. </span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">For example, the Chhakali community (washer-men) is patron of the bard <i>jati</i> called Patamollu. Through their scroll they narrate the <i>Madel Puranam</i>, which is the story of Madel, whose progeny is the community of washer-men. Similarly for the Padmasaalis (weavers), the story-tellers are called Koonapuli-varu, who narrate the <i>Markandeya Puranam</i>, which is the story of Bhavana Rishi, the progenitor of the weaving community.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This paper dwells upon the actual narration of one such <i>jati purana</i> namely the <i>Jambavantaru Puranam</i>, which is narrated by the Dakkalollu (also called Dakkala or Dakkali) community of story-tellers for the Madiga community (leather workers and tanners). This particular narration took place in November 2012 in a village called Nashkal, in Ghanpur town, 25kms away from Warangal, the second largest city in Telangana, after Hyderabad. Registered as Schedule Castes in 1961, the Madiga are today numerically the largest within the state’s Schedule Caste population. Traditionally employed as leather workers and ritual drummers, 72 per cent of Madigas are today employed as agricultural labour (i). The Dakkalollu community on the other hand has been one of the dependent <i>jatis </i>on the Madigas who also narrate and perform their version of the <i>purana</i>. Historically the Dakkalollu community has been documented as professional performers and story-tellers of the Madiga community (ii). Edgar Thurston in his omnibus on <i>Castes and Tribes of South India</i> recorded, <i>“Dakkala or Dakkali is the name of a class of mendicants who beg from Madigas only. The Dakkalas wander from place to place. They may not enter Madiga houses, outside which meals are given to them by males only, as females are not allowed to serve them” </i>(Thurston 1909: 134) </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">No reference was made to Dakkalollus in the 1911 Census, and in the 1921 Census they were shown under the Depressed Classes, without a figure of the population. In many of the previous censuses, the Dakkalollu community was considered a part of the Madigas, and so they only existed as a category in the 1961 Census, which was also the year they too were classified as Scheduled Castes (iii). The 2001 Census reported the Dakkalollu population in Andhra Pradesh to be little above 2500, of which three-forth were documented as “Main Workers” (iv). </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">From legends recorded both by Thurston and by Siraj-UI-Hassan in <i>Caste and Tribes of H.E.H the Nizam’s Dominions</i> <i>1920</i>, Jagamuni, the younger son of Jambavantha, the ancestor of the Madigas, was restored back to life by Vishwabrahma after his father used parts of his body to make the marriage locket for Shiva and Parvati. However Jambavantha rejected the recreated Jagamuni as his son, and wished that he and his descendants be taken care by Madiags and serving them as story-tellers (Thurston, 1909). The Dakkallollus, in this regard, have been considered <i>jati</i> gurus, keepers of legal records and genealogies, as well as narrators. Historically, they have had hereditary rights to claim livelihood from the Madigas, and in case of denial, also had the right to mount an effigy and set it up (Sadanandam, 2008). The Dakkalollus are deemed as the ‘fallen kin’ of Madigas, which is usually how the relationship between story-telling communities and their dependent <i>jatis</i> are usually portrayed. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Interestingly, the Madigas too have a ‘fallen from grace’ mythology to explain the social location of their profession. The profession is generally the result of a penance for the ‘cosmic errors’ committed by the progenitor. Jambavantha’s elder son, Velamerru, partook of the meat of the divine cow, Kamdhenu, much against the wishes of his father, and was condemned to be eternally attached to the very thing he had consumed. The hereditary occupation of Madigas is said to be founded on the belief that by making shoes for people, the sin of their ancestor would be expiated (v). </span><br />
<br />
<h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Material Forms </span></h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>Scroll:</b> What is unique to the Jambavantaru Puranam scroll painted by the Nakasi community is that it is the only scroll of the <i>jati puranas</i> in the Telangana that is horizontal (narrated from right to left), but what made the scroll of this particular troupe of Dakkalollu artists particularly interesting was that the scroll was not cloth, but a digitally printed flex banner. <i>“The cloth scroll usually gets destroyed in the rains. This one lasts us longer”</i>, said Karnekanti Krishna Kant, one of the members of the Dakkalollu troupe. </span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image3.jpg" height="298" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 3: Digitally printed flex scroll. Jambavantaru Purana performance. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Nashkal village, Telangana, 2013. Photo by author. </span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This, as I learnt, seems to be a practice that story-telling communities across the region are increasingly turning to. Photographs of a cloth scroll are taken, scanned, digitally pieced together, and then colour-printed on a flex machine. On closer examination, one could see the pixelated texture of the images, and the “scroll”, owing to its sheen, reflected way too much light, when the halogens were turned on during performance. The current location of the cloth scroll from which the flex one was produced, was unknown to the story-tellers, or so they claimed. All they knew was that the scroll was painted by a Nakasi artist in Vemulawada, in Karimnagar district, 133 kms from where we were. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">It may be worthwhile to also note that the story-tellers might not find it very prudent to invest in commissioning a new scroll which may cost them anything between 30-35,000 INR or 500-580 USD. The longevity of a flex print in their minds is far more than a scroll made of cloth and painted with water colours. <i>“To us it doesn’t make a difference. A patam is a patam. When this patam first came to the house we offered it three heaps of rice and sacrificed a goat. So what if it is not cloth. It is the source of our livelihood. The patam is after all home for all the gods in the story”,</i> said Karne Gopal, one of the principal story-tellers. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Traditionally the <i>patam</i> was made of materials, namely coarse cotton cloth and water colours, that were intended to be perishable. Like most mobile shrines, an old and unusable <i>patam </i>was generally ritually immersed in a river. While this celebration of impermanence is substituted with the consumption of a durable flex scroll, the sacral power of the scroll is nevertheless not lost, as long as it is “home for all the gods in the story”. Thus it is by virtue of its surface being inscribed with the narrative of the gods’ lives, that the material ‘flex’ is infused with another kind of materiality i.e. capable of making the gods present. And as long as the gods are made present through the narrative contained in the scroll, it “is the source of (their) livelihood.”
Thus one notices how changes in the material practices of this form – the physicality of the scroll and the technique of telling – stir narratives that shift between those of sustenance and of bending rules on the one hand, and those of ownership and continuity on the other. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>The Performance:</b> The space of the narration/performance was a <i>mandapa</i> (ritual performance space enclosed by pillars) a few meters away from the Ramaswamy Temple, for which the village is known What looked like a colourful canopy of a tent was made to serve as a facade on three sides. Facing the space where the audience would be seated, on top of the cloth facade, like a second layer, was the <i>Jambavantaru Puranam patam</i>. The enclosed space within served as the green-room for the story-tellers, where they would attend to their costumes and make-up. </span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image4.jpg" height="400" width="337" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 4: <i>Mandapa</i>. Nashkal village, Telangana, 2013. Photo by author.</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">As mentioned earlier, the Dakkalollu community belongs to the group largely called <i>adugukunetollu</i>, which consist of those groups who earn a living by composing theatrical ‘performances’ (e.g. Bhagvatam by Chindu Madigas), and those who use ‘descriptive and pictorial maps’ to only narrate stories and genealogies. The Dakkalollu community belongs to the latter. Past records of performances have documented how the “main singer holds a pointer of one yard… He shows the figures on the <i>Patam</i> with this pointer and tells the story” (Sadanandam 2008: 91). While working with a group of story-tellers in 1998 who were narrators to the community of washer-men, Thangavelu observes, “The storytellers wore neither makeup nor costumes, but their simple white shirts and white dhotis contrasted vividly with the dull red presence of the painted scroll” (Thangavelu 1998: 123).</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span id="goog_2050897332"></span><span id="goog_2050897333"></span> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image5.jpg" height="306" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 5: The Markendeya Purana being narrated by a simply dressed Kunapooli-varu narrator. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Image
captured from a video, courtesy Center for Folk and Tribal Sudies, </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Telugu University, Warangal campus. Warrangal, Telangana, 1994. </span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">However, this particular <i>Jambavantaru Puranam</i> narration wasn’t so much of a narration as it was a dance-drama rife with colourful costumes, vigorous bodily gestures, painted faces, and a ‘jester’, who wore a cowboy’s hat, and sported a pink face and a lush moustache.
<i>“Since we have changed the style of narration we needed the ‘joker’ as a coordinator… to introduce and invite different roles on to the dais and also to entertain audience”</i>
- Manalu Gopal, a member of the Dakkalollu troupe. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Brahmin Narrator: Write this down! “We are illiterate and we do not know science” Write it down, you ass! </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jester (making a gesture of writing in air): Ok Sir… “We are illiterate and we do not know science. Write it down you ass.” There I have written it.
(The audience laughs) </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Brahmin Narrator: Yeah yeah, we can crack jokes later. Do you know today’s story? </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jester: Okay, what story are you going to tell? </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Brahmin Narrator: The birth of Trimurthulu and the death of Adishakthi. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jester: How were they born? </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Brahmin Narrator: How the earth and the sky were born? </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jester: Who is Thrimurthulu? Is today’s story about the birth of Thrimurthulu? </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Brahmin Narrator: A lame naïve, one who was born before the earth and the sky. He is an elderly man. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jester: Call him forth. </span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image6.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 6: Actors from the Dakallolu troupe during the performance at Nashkal. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Nashkal village, Telangana, 2013. Photo by author. </span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">As is apparent, even though the figure of the jester is meant to ‘unstructure’ that which has been divinely scripted, he, like the Brahmin narrator, is as much the means through which the narrative arrives at its cognitive end; his comic iconoclasm directed to Brahmanic privilege corresponds to the symbolic milieu within which <i>jati puranas</i> were composed (Shulman, 2007). By announcing, “Call him forth” the jester not only takes on the onus of sculpting characters out of the scroll, that appear in flesh and bone, but also acts on behalf of the audience, who is not so much interested in the eulogies of the Brahmin narrator, but in the dramatic action that has been promised to them. Soon into the performance, the ‘stage’ was occupied by male actors in costume playing Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, along with Adi Shakti (female power), and the jester. The ornaments included shoulder decorations, crowns and necklaces of glittering tinsel and artificial beads. As opposed to two story-tellers, whose poetry, prose and songs don the voice of characters depicted on the scroll, this particular narration was a literal illustration of all that was ‘printed’ on the ‘scroll’. </span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image7.jpg" height="298" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 7: Left to Right, Jester, Shiva and Adi Shakti. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Nashkal village, Telangana, 2013. Photo by author. </span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Unlike the ‘traditional’ format where simply dressed story-tellers would only intermittently elude the audience to the scroll during their narration, during this particular narration, the scroll merely served as a backdrop, to which no reference was made. It almost seemed like the characters and voices had ‘come out’ of the scroll and were engaging the audience not in a ‘real’ space and time, but rather as a ‘live telecast’. Then why have the scroll? </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><i>“We apply colour depending on the emotions and distinctiveness of the character as it is painted in the patam. If someone is playing role of Krishna, he should wear a crown and ornaments, carry a chakra (wheel) in his hand, if it is Shakti, she carries sulam (trident). We do our make-up and costumes according to the pictures in the patam.”</i>
- Karnekanti Yelamanda, member of the Dakkalollu troupe. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The emergence of these new stylistic elements points to the possibility of live actors as a concrete expression of the content of the scroll. Without the theatrical rendition, the meaning(s) of the images then do not reveal themselves. However the fact that the physical appearances of the actors have to be proximate to the forms set out by the scroll does suggest that both the new and the old vocabularies transgress their boundaries by being dependant on each other for their full expression (Malik, 2005). </span><br />
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<h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Agents </span></h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">According to Roma Chatterji, when a practice is considered “not as a single homogenous entity but as a composition of heterogeneous pieces, we see that these novel elements do fit into its overall structure” (Chatterji 2009: 45). However what this paper would like to focus on is not only the way in which the practitioners validate the need to fit in these “novel elements”, but also how this comes to define their relationship with the resultant “overall structure”. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Within the Telangana region there are five sub-sects of bards who have been historically dependent on the Madiga community for their sustenance. These are Chindu, Asadi, Matangi, Nukachanddyy and Dakkalollu. Each community of bards narrates the <i>jati purana</i> from their own perspective, and each adapt a style of narration different from the other. Of these Chindu Madigas have a unique dramatic presentation called Bhagvatam, which comprises of song and dance. The costumes, make-up and dramatic style of this particular narration by the Dakkalollus, as claimed by audience present, greatly resembled the Chindu Bhagvatam.
<i>“The Chindu Bhagvatam is a theatrical form that is more attractive for the audience. That is why these people too have started borrowing from that style. It was not there earlier”</i>
- From the audience. </span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://urmilamohan.com/blog/2015/08/bose/image8.jpg" height="256" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Figure 8: A Chindu Bhagvatam troupe. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Source <a href="http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/theatre/chindu-bhagavatam-comes-of-age/article3839122.ece" target="_blank">“Chindu Bhagvatam comes of age”</a>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">What seems then to be appropriate among the Dakkalollu communities who borrow styles and media from other traditions of narrative practices is to preserve some sort of visible marker which might signify that they are indeed proponents of their own hereditary profession. As far as the narrative-content of the ‘performance’ was concerned, it was true to the variation which has been historically chronicled by the Dakkalollus. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">When asked about the proximity of the current form of the art-form to the Chindu Bhagvatam style, the Dakkalollu troupe insisted,
<i>“Our story and the way of telling the story are completely different. The Chindus have their own version of the Jambavantaru Puranam, which is not ours. We’ve changed our style to draw more audiences.”</i>
- Kanakanchi Narayana, member of the Dakkalollu troupe.
The community of practitioners, like any other, is cognizant of the inadequacies that the market economy imbues into their art-form. The engineering of sound with the ‘actual’ and ‘real’ image supersedes the complex reading of a painted scroll. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><i>“Now cinemas are born. TVs have come. If we don’t try and make these stories entertaining nobody would watch it. We have changed it to grab the attention of the audience. This happened around 2000-2001. If we continued doing it the old way, nobody would listen. Despite several changes, like introducing the harmonium, costumes and make-up, there are still that many people who are interested in our stories.”</i>
- Karnekanti Krishna Kant, one of the members of the Dakkalollu troupe. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">While the practice allows itself to morph its form, this process stems from a human ability to ‘reject’ but also a simultaneously ‘reclaim’ the history of one’s positionality to a thing, person, practice or place. If one juxtaposes “our story and the way of telling…” and “changed our style”, it alludes us to the simple truth that an artistic performance cannot be comprehended in isolation, without the lives of performers. The abjection of the latter causes a compression on the contours of the former, but in effect this force generates the conditions for a kind of creation. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">However, while this double-headed staff of rejection and reclamation allows the practice to be ‘re-created’, what deserves attention is the end to which this ‘re-creation’ is directed. Veena Das highlights that in pre-British India, <i>jati puranas</i> were submitted to the king (along with other evidence) in order to be considered for a particular rank in the caste hierarchy, where “the usual method was to invite the caste group to submit 'evidence' with reference to its manners, customs, occupation, myth of origin, etc., on the basis of which it was claiming a particular caste rank” (Das 1968: 67). </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Historically aimed at the community, the need for the performers to choose a discourse of ‘entertainment’ demonstrates that the practice is now staged for an ‘audience’. But how neat is this audience-community distinction? After all, what purpose do these stories serve today? </span><br />
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<h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Narrative Function </span></h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">According to the 2011 Census, forty percentage of total households in Nashkal village belonged to the Schedule Caste, of which seventy percent were Madigas, followed by Malas (the other leather-working <i>jati</i>), Gouda <i>jati</i> (toddy-tapping communities) and Chakali (washer-men). The Madigas in the village usually depended upon construction work around Ghanpur for their livelihood. It was only recently that Devadula Project was completed in Ghanpur which is meant to convert the Ghanpur Lake into a reservoir, for irrigational purposes. Most Madigas from the village were employed as daily labour to transport sand brought in from the city, to dump it on the site. But more permanent jobs include driving autos and felling trees. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Moreover the history of the Madiga community is also punctuated by a double movement – one, of conversions to Christianity, Islam and Buddhism during the early parts of the twentieth century to negotiate with the stigmas of the institutionalized ‘caste system’ of British India; and, two, of reasserting ties with the community, but this time as a politically conscious collective, <i>Dalit</i>, to address a history of social exclusion through legislative and democratic mechanisms in post-independent India. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">If <i>jati puranas</i> are imagined as ‘social texts’ which situate individual communities in relation to each other through ritual and occupational roles, how do the communities, as listeners of the <i>puranas</i>, reconcile their ‘newer histories’? </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">James Pochaiah, a Madiga convert, present in the audience during the performance highlighted,
<i>“Because of Dr. Ambedkar </i>(vi)<i>, we are proud of our origin. We have no expectations about anything new from the government to help us, but we respect our caste. These are stories that I have been listening since I was a child. We believe in them. They are true facts. These stories tell us that we should pray, serve more, expect less, believe in god and believe in ourselves. When we feel satisfied, we feel happy. When we are happy, we could serve or help the needy.”</i> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Venkataiah, a practicing Hindu Madiga, who earned a livelihood by running a small tea-stall in the village adds,
<i>“For us Harijans </i>(vii)<i>, jati is very important. However some of our children, who are educated, do not. These puranas are not only entertaining; they also tell us what problems we might expect to face in our daily lives. It tells us how one should live without harming others; how to help and save people in need. The essence and theme of the Purana is how one should lead their life in this world. Everything we do, everything we know comes from these puranas. Previously these story-tellers would only use a stick to tell us the stories. It used to be very boring then. Now they have added music and costume. This makes things very clear.”</i> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">What is it about the narration of <i>jati purana</i> that enables it to bring forth a discourse around caste within the nation-state, as evoked through the figure of Ambedkar and the collective identity of being <i>Harijan</i>? How did the <i>puranic</i> narrative as a treatise on a particular profession and pride associated with that profession delink itself from the narrative as a generalized text on <i>dharma</i>?
Post-colonial historiography suggests a radical openness of the text, where the historical narrative is not only constituted in the act of production – of writing and speaking, but also in the act of reception – reading and listening (Rao, Shulman and Subramanyam, 2003). It is through this reception then that the reader moves between plural sources of moral authority, and he does this by locating himself within the flows of a similar kind of simultaneous rejection and reclamation as pointed above. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In this particular instance, when the Jambavanturu story was narrated, one notices how the some aspects of the genealogy of narrative come to be ‘rejected’ – with the focus on honour in one’s <i>jati</i> occupation being shifted to pride in a collective <i>Dalit identity</i>. But at the same time, the narrative is ‘reclaimed’ through a more universalistic paradigm as it focuses on human life and emotions – of mercy, servitude and duty (Chatterji, 2009). And it is within this universalistic paradigm that the figures of Jambavanturu and Ambedkar, as progenitor and as leader respectively, merge together; that non-traditional occupations are validated as long as they conform to the values set forth by their <i>jati purana</i>. </span><br />
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<h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Its Own Self </span></h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Alexander Piatigorsky reminds us that myths are objective phenomena that cannot be self-consciously produced. They can only be re-produced or re-enacted (Piatigorsky, 1993). But the purpose of each re-enactment is however not to represent, but to reveal. At one level, the re-enacted myth refers to those events that offer other points of anchorage for the narrative – a history of social exclusion of Madigas. And at another, the myth pushes forth those meanings which foreground an utterance from a vortex of alternatives by virtue of its congruity within the contemporary discourse – the Madiga identity as a cornerstone of the <i>Dalit</i> movement in South India. Returning to Veena Das’ assertion about the historical contexts within which these <i>Puranas</i> were composed, this practice alludes to a continuum between a <i>“primordial sentiment and a contemporary orientation”</i> (Chatterji 2009: 46), such that it continues to imagine ways in which the history of the community can be <i>written</i>. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Thus, given the new aesthetic forms and new social texts which these oral narratives have been able to inscribe, this paper suggests that there is a possibility that the practice may exercise a similar kind of 'will' upon its relationship with the story-tellers and the audience-community. For within a more emic account, the practice does after all 'reject' a complete displacement of its rules and formulae as a performative genre both in terms of its delivery and reception; simultaneously, stemming from the way in which an overtly <i>“entertaining” </i>format for narrating the <i>puranas</i> comes to register other chapters of history, the practice reclaims the relationship between the story-tellers and their listeners as one drawing from both memory and re-cognition (Shulman, 2001). </span><br />
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<h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Conclusion </span></h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The efficacy of oral-ritual genres then not only lies in the linguistic practices, but also in the conditions that produce and receive these practices. These are also the conditions which generate the invented portions of the <i>patam</i> tradition, but enter into the history of the performance ‘only’ at the moment of performance. Because it is during the act of performance and the act of participation that the story-tellers, audience-community and the practice are confronted with the need to verify and authenticate the way in which they forge relationships with one another.
This paper claims that this relationship is not a state which is brought about by the field of activity shared between these three centri-focal units. Rather the relationship is the <u>field</u> being constructed from the trails that get formed as each of these – story-tellers, audience-community and the practice – give to and take from; open up and delimit; reject and reclaim the pool of meanings built from the history of their positionalities to one another. </span><br />
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<h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Endnotes </span></h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">i. Census Abstract for Individual for Individual Schedule Caste in Andhra Pradesh, 2011. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">ii. Census of India, Vol. II. 1961. Andhra Pradesh. Ethnographic Notes on Mehtar, Mahar, Mang, Garodi, Dhor and Dakkal. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">iii. Census of India, Vol. II. 1961. Andhra Pradesh. Ethnographic Notes on Mehtar, Mahar, Mang, Garodi, Dhor and Dakkal. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">iv. Census Abstract for Individual for Individual Schedule Caste in Andhra Pradesh, 2011. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">v. Census of India, Vol. II. 1961. Andhra Pradesh. Ethnographic Notes on Mehtar, Mahar, Mang, Garodi, Dhor and Dakkal. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">vi. B. R. Ambedkar was an Indian jurist, politician and social reformer who inspired the <i>Dalit </i>movement and campaigned against social discrimination in India, striving for equal social rights. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">vii. <i>Harijan</i> is a term popularized by Mohandas Gandhi for referring to <i>Dalits</i>, traditionally considered to be untouchable. </span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">References </span></h3>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Chatterji, Roma. 2009. "Global Events and Local Narratives: 9/11 and the Picture Storytellers of Bengal”, in <i>Indian Folklore Research Journal</i>, No. 9, 1-26 </span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">_______. 2009. <i>Writing Identities: Folklore and Performative Arts of Purulia, Bengal.</i> IGNCA: New Delhi.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Das, Veena. 1968. "A Sociological Approach to Caste Puranas: A Case Study", in <i>Indian Sociological Bulletin</i>, Vol. 1 No. 2. </span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Malik, Aditya. 2005. <i>Nectar Gaze and Poison Breath.</i> Oxford University Press. </span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Piatigorsky, Alexander. 1993. <i>Mythological Deliberations. Lectures on the Phenomenology of Myth.</i> London: School of Oriental and African Studies. </span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ramanujan, A. K. 1993. “On Folk Mythologies and Folk Puranas”, in Wendy Doniger (ed.) <i>Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts.</i> State University of New York Press. </span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rao, V. Narayan, Shulman, David and Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (eds). 2003. <i>Textures of Time: Writing History in South India 1600-1800.</i> Other Press. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sadanandam, P. 2008. <i>Art and Culture of Marginalized Nomadic Tribes in Andhra Pradesh. </i>Gyan Publishing House: New Delhi. </span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Shulman, David. 2001. <i>The Wisdom of Poets: Studies in Tamil, Telugu and Sanskrit.</i> Oxford University Press.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">_________. 2007. “A Kingdom of Clowns: Brahmins, Jesters, Magicians”, in Meenakshi Khanna (ed.) <i>Cultural History of Medieval India. </i>Social Science Press: New Delhi. </span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Thurston, Edgar. 1909. <i>Castes and Tribes of Southern India. </i>Madras Government Museum.
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UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 9"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 9"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Indent"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="header"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footer"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of figures"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope return"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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Urmilahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14931673947043232971noreply@blogger.com0